Pica, T.  (1994).  Questions from the language classroom:  Research perspectives.  TESOL Quarterly, 28.  pp.49-79.

5. What can be done to encourage participation among students who seldom ask questions or initiate interaction?
 

• While it seems that students who participate more have a higher chance of improving their production, the key factor may actually be classroom discomfort which leads to less participation and thus a lower proficiency.

 
• In one study Allwright (1980) found that the student who made the most progress was not necessarily the one who was the most interactive.  The key factor appeared to be attentiveness to the teacher and other students.

 
• One area where interaction is crucial, especially for less proficient learners is seeking clarification of message content.

 
• " . . . it might be important to keep in mind that individual learners have their own ways of making the classroom an environment conducive to their L2 learning."

 
References
Allwright, R.  (1980).  Turns, topics and tasks:  Patterns of participation in language learning and teaching.  In D. Larsen-Freeman (Ed.), Discourse analysis in second language research (pp. 165-187).  Rowley, MA:  Newbury House.

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