Research Paper Guidelines

A. Overview

The research papers’ subjects will be of each person’s choosing, but should focus on the topics covered, or at least touched on, in the course (and be different from the presentation topic).  A research paper could analyze a line of cases, or a statute or a policy-making institution.  The organization, format, and content of each paper should be similar to a note in a scholarly journal.  The paper should be about eight double spaced word-processed pages, excluding footnotes.  Choose a topic that will actively engage you in the research and writing.

All sources in this or any other research paper must be fully acknowledged.  This includes all sources from which you derive ideas, analyses or leads, and not simply sources you quote or paraphrase.  All internet sources should be accompanied by the relevant printout.

B. Organization

Structure of Paper

1) An introductory section that summarizes the issue of natural resources policy or law to be examined and tells what you plan to cover in the balance of the paper.

2) A section that traces the development of the issue historically.

3) A critical analysis of the laws and leading cases dealing with the issue.

4) A description of the main divergent points of view in contemporary debates over the issue.  (What interests are served by each point of view?)

5) A description of alternative and creative approaches to resolving the issue.  (Don’t hesitate to draw from other fields of knowledge and experience.)

6) A presentation of your rationale for recommending a particular approach or course of action.

7) A conclusion that ties ideas together and synthesizes the information brought out in the paper.

 and the submission of the final draft.

C. Style and Format

1. Papers should be paginated. Be sure to make and keep a copy.

2. Your paper’s first page should include a paragraph telling the reader what you plan to cover in the balance of the paper.  Be explicit.

3. A heading (or subheading) should appear at least every second page.

4. Strive to begin a new paragraph every three or four sentences.

5. Footnotes must be sequential, e.g. 1 to 50, and may appear at the bottom of the page or at the end of the paper.  Properly referenced, a paper of eight pages could easily include 40 footnotes.

    A second consecutive footnote to the same source should be cited as Id, at page #.  A second non-consecutive footnote to the same source should be cited as
    "[name of source], supra n. 1[footnote number where the source first appears],"  at page #

    Give full citations, in a footnote, for all  laws and treatises when they first appear in your text.

6. When a document or law case is mentioned for the first time, use the full name and year in the text and give a complete citation in a footnote.

7. A case citation in a footnote must include the court, the year in which the case was decided, and the volume of reports in which the case can be found.

8. Generally, try to avoid using quotations.  Quotations interrupt the flow, and often you can say it better in your own words.  Identify the source of all direct quotes in the text, e.g. Interior Secretary Gale Norton has observed, "….."  In a footnote cite the publication or occasion where your source made his or her remark.  Again: Never use a quote without identifying the source of the quote in the text.

9. When reviewing a case, use the past tense..  Also, never say "The judge felt…"  Instead, say the judge reasoned, observed, stated or believed.  Similarly, say "I believe" rather than "I feel."

10. Bibliographies or reference lists are welcome but not required.

11. Avoid excess verbiage.  Generally, use short words, short sentences and short paragraphs.  Spare the reader high-flown rhetoric, windy generalizations, lame clichés, and uncritical thought.

12. Do not use long words such as "utilize" when a short word such as "use" will suffice.  It’s hard the see the advantage of the long words in the left hand column, when the ones on the right can do the job:

 ameliorate                                         improve
 approximately                                   about
 commence                                        begin
 deactivate                                          close
 endeavor                                           try
 in consequence of                             because
 proliferation                                      spread
 remuneration                                    pay

13. Stay away from wordy phrases like "It should be noted that," "It must be realized that," "It is important to note that," "Also important is the fact that," "Therefore it seems that," "I would at this juncture of my paper," "It is now time for this to writer to admit her own," "The thesis here is that," "The point I’m trying to make is," "In conclusion," and "At this point in time."

14. Use  "to" rather than "in order to."

15. Spelling and usage:

a. it’s = it is; its = possessive

b. Almost every "which" can be changed to "that" and about half of the "that’s" can be eliminated..

c. Try to avoid contractions.

d. Spell out all numbers zero to nine.  Use numerals for numbers 10 and higher.

e. Do not use XYZ "etc."  Instead, say "such as X, Y and Z."

f. The verb effect means to bring about: the verb affect means to influence.

g. Avoid these common mistakes:

 all intents and purposes, not all intensive purposes
 input, not imput
 deep-seated, not deep-seeded
 free rein, not free reign
 tenets (principles), not tenants
 one and the same, not one in the same
 spit and image, not spittin’ image
 complement (add to), not compliment

16. Be careful not to overuse the words clearly  obviously, or plainly.

17. Always use the active voice.  "Nancy led the discussion" is strong.  "The
       discussion was led by Nancy" is weak.

18. Do not say "This paper will explore…"  The paper is not a person. Say, "In
      this paper, I will explore…"

D. Research Strategies

1. First, conduct a thorough search of the library literature and available documents.  Refer to Infotrack, Index to Legal Periodicals, and perhaps Lexis or Westlaw.  Interview knowledgeable professors and recognized leaders or experts.  Interviews will give your paper more credibility and will enable you to make an original contribution to knowledge.

2. You may collaborate with anyone on locating appropriate sources.

3. Use primary sources—original cases, documents, and interviews—whenever you can.  Use Lexis/Nexis and Westlaw discriminately.  These research tools may flood you with largely irrelevant material.  Legal and other scholarly journal articles are desirable secondary sources.  Use newspaper and magazine stories only to complement your other materials.

4. When discussing a particular issue, controversy, or conflict, ask yourself whether you have identified the major players and the interests they represent.

5. When reviewing and assessing the effectiveness of a policy, you ought to ask: Is the policy accomplishing its purpose?  (If not, why not?)  Which interests (economic and/or political) have benefited or been hurt by the policy?  Have certain interests taken control over implementing (or undermining) the policy?

6. When discussing a law, explain not only what the law says but how it works.

7. If a court decision contains vague language, you should infer that the drafters expected the executive agency to use its best judgment to effectuate the decision’s purpose.

8. Stop researching when you have enough material to substantiate your claims, enlighten your reader, and put the problem in context.  You must make sense of what you have gathered and learned.  Too much time devoted to the research will leave you too little time for intelligent writing.  You ought to spend 60% to two-thirds of your available time researching and one-third to 40% of your time writing.

E. Writing Strategies

1. Writing a paper is an interpretative process.  After you have gathered the necessary materials, sit down and start writing freely.  Just get your ideas down on paper.  When you review what you’ve written, remember that vigorous writing is concise.  A sentence should contain now unnecessary words, a  paragraph no unnecessary sentences.

2. Spend time perfecting your introduction.  The intro, should be tightly written and clear.  Do you have a main contention or finding?  What is the central issue?  Define it.  Explore its origins and historical development.

Your opening paragraph is especially important.  It must capture the reader.  It must also provide a few hard details that tell the reader why you are writing this research paper and why she/he ought to read it.

3. Several topics in this course may require some mastery of scientific or technological data.  Your description of the science or technology surrounding an issue should be introductory  and subordinate to your policy  focus.

4. Strive for cadence, balance, and logical sequence.  Think about the logical progression of your arguments.  Present facts chronologically and in an organized fashion.   Make the connections between various pieces of information; don’t leave it up to the reader.

5. EDIT, EDIT, EDIT!!!  This cannot be stressed enough.  Recast and tighten your material.  Have the courage to cut.

Correct spelling, punctuation, and typographical errors.  Leave at least one hour for proofreading before submitting your draft.  (Poorly edited and proofread papers show lack of care, and will turn off the reader.)

     GOOD LUCK!