Literature Review
List of Publications
Glossary of Terms and Concepts:
Active Learning
Calculus Reform
Collaborative Learning
Cooperative Education
Critical Thinking
General Education
Learning Communities
Science Reform
Service Learning
Undergraduate Research
Undergraduate Teaching and Learning Improvement Initiatives
Active Learning
Summary of Reform
The implementation of Active Learning usually involves pedagogical reform
by the individual faculty member on a class-by-class basis, but also involves
a change in student culture. Faculty utilize techniques such as "the
one minute paper," short, in-class exercises, and asking students
to develop questions related to the lecture material being reviewed. These
and other techniques serve to move the student learning experience away
from memorization of facts toward active engagement with curricular material,
and using and applying knowledge. In the sciences it has involved more
laboratory and project work. Physics has been traditionally taught primarily
in a lecture format but many are suggesting that laboratory or workshop
activities are more effective for teaching students. Active learning is
also often complemented by a problem-based curriculum.
Level of Institutionalization
Active Learning requires little institutionalization. Individual faculty
can initiate independent efforts in their respective classrooms, though
some forms of Active Learning require institutional support if they use
technology, labs or other equipment that require resources.
Outcomes
Improved learning outcomes such as critical thinking, as well as content
knowledge; improved student motivation for learning; improves learning
in upper division courses (outcome in the sciences); increased problem
solving abilities; easier transition to work.
Description of
Assessment
Several studies have explored the positive outcomes for students as a
result of active learning. David Kolb and other cognitive psychologist
have produced these types of studies. However, little assessment has been
done outside of these experimental studies at for instance the institutional
or department level within a college campus.
Resistances
Faculty may be resistant to implementation as there are generally no rewards
for changing their pedagogy and course content to include active learning.
Faculty must invest the additional effort required in devising and deploying
new activities, and taking on the new role as facilitator rather than
solely that of a lecturer. Students may be resistant to giving up their
traditional, passive role as audience member in exchange for participating
in new, in-class activities.
Evolution/History
Active Learning has a long tradition, first emerging from Deweyian educational
philosophy at the turn of the century: "learning by doing."
Active learning is part of a whole series of techniques for engaging students
in experiential learning.
Link to Suggested
Readings
Articles on Active Learning
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Calculus Reform
Summary of Reform
Reform Calculus involves multi-level efforts including: faculty development,
assessment, encouragement of risk taking, cooperative homework groups,
development of community in class, standards which emphasize problem solving,
geometric visualization, and quantitative reasoning. In addition, Reform
Calculus involves understanding numerically, graphically, algebraically
and through means such as writing, visualization, and use of graphic calculators.
Evaluation of the various components is necessary to assess outcomes.
Class size is typically limited to 24 students.
In regard to the specific curriculum, there
is an emphasis on story problems in order to relate calculus to the real
world (problem centered curriculum). Pedagogical changes ask faculty to
become more of a facilitator of group projects and active learning. Faculty
listen to students as they try to develop understanding, identify gaps
in knowledge, and ways to clarify what they have just learned. Teaching
becomes a human experience of relating to students not just communicating
a body of knowledge. Small class size is necessary for the development
of trust needed for students to engage in discussion and take risks in
learning. Small class size also allows for detailed feedback on homework.
New uses of interactive mathematics texts through a grant through IBM.
Level of Institutionalization
Involves high degree of institutionalization since it necessitates limiting
class size, faculty development, and training of teaching assistants
Outcomes
Critical thinking, problem solving, writing, cooperative skills, geometric
visualization, and quantitative reasoning.
Process
Reform Calculus involves modified curriculum, textbook and pedagogy
as well as smaller class size.
Description of
Assessment
NSF sponsored initiatives require assessment. Reports can be obtained
from NSF.
Resistances
Many of the resistances to Reform Calculus are similar to the resistance
to science reforms. Student culture is seen as a barrier as students often
feel they are not being taught and are resentful and skeptical as a result.
Faculty and students are both frustrated at times because these classes
move more slowly than traditional classes. Specifically, there is a perception
that students are not learning as much content as they should.
Link to Suggested
Readings
Articles on Calculus Reform
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Collaborative Learning
Summary of Reform
The focus of Collaborative Learning is on mutual student exploration and
application of material not simply the teacher's presentation. There is
a shift away from teacher centered or lecture centered pedagogy, sometimes
humorously referred to as ‘sage on the stage’ pedagogy. This
reform consciously tries to construct opportunities for student involvement
through teamwork, discussion, out of classroom study groups, and active
engagement with course materials. Students must be empowered to make many
of the choices, especially since collaborative learning addresses the
way authority is distributed; it implies that the teacher relinquish authority
to some degree to enable students to negotiate tasks and learn in a mutually
supportive peer environment. Other possibilities could include having
students collaborate syllabus, peer teaching, writing groups, discussion
groups, team research projects and experiential education. Collaboration
blurs the boundaries between teaching and research as knowledge is seen
to be co-created in the classroom; collaboration means that knowledge
is created not transferred, and locates that knowledge production process
in the group rather than in the individual.
Level of Institutionalization
Collaborative Learning requires minimal institutional support. Individual
instructors have tended to initiate this change from within their classroom.
Several people have suggested that institutionalization would be helpful,
especially within large classes (collaboration does not depend on class
size. Institutional cultures typically remained unchanged.
Outcomes
Community which is seen as essential for learning especially among the
learning styles of women; interdependence in increasingly collaborative
world and for sustaining a democracy, improves student retention, complexity
of thinking increases, acceptance of different ideas, motivation for learning
and connection among students.
Description of
Assessment
Studies have been conducted to illustrate the effectiveness of collaborative
learning but few institutions or states are assessing how collaborative
learning impacts student outcomes. Problem is we don't know why and how
they occur. Also since not institutionalized, assessment is classroom
by classroom if done.
Resistances
Students may be resistant to giving up their traditional, passive role
as a sponge-like absorber of information, instead having to work autonomously
and sometimes competitively. Faculty may be resistant to relinquishing
control and allowing students to negotiate assignments and challenge understandings
may be perceived as unacceptably threatening to faculty authority.
Evolution/History
This evolves out of several different traditions including 1960's innovation
such as cluster colleges, free schools and interdisciplinary programs
that stressed that learning occurs among people not between people and
things. Out of social constructivism and new ways that knowledge is assumed
to be developed. Ted Newcomb's work on influence of peers on student's
learning; learning is illustrated to be a social process. Also evolved
out of Belenky et al's work on women's relational way of knowing. Also
evolves out of critical pedagogies challenge to teacher authority.
Link to Suggested
Readings
Articles on Collaborative
Learning
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Cooperative Education
Summary of Reform
Instructional use of small groups so that students work together to maximize
their own and each other's learning and toward a group goal. It is based
on the social interdependence theory of Kurt Lewin and Morton Deustch
(1930-1940s). Several researchers have detailed the conditions under which
cooperative, individualized, and competitive structures affect or increase
student achievement such as David and Roger Johnson at University of Minnesota,
Robert Slavinb at Johns Hopkins University, and Elizabeth Cohen at Stanford.
The development of interpersonal skills is as important as the learning
itself; learning to cooperate is key to high quality work, group process
skills are developed. Teaches students to work well in group settings.
Process directly tied to outcome.
Level of Institutionalization
Ranges greatly. Can be an individual faculty member incorporates into
a class but often part of a school or college curriculum and is institutionalized
through formal arrangements.
Outcomes
Critical thinking, student motivation to learn, interdependence, work
well in group environment; important in internationalized or globalized
world.
Description of
Assessment
Have not found much about just assessing cooperative learning but it has
been studied as a part of the science reforms, new wave calculus, and
NCEE may have some studies on. Article by Bredehoft says there is not
much research to date on the effects of cooperative learning in colleges.
63 studies indicate that cooperative learning promotes greater achievement
than traditional competitive methods. Also students provide more support
for each other. Learning together promotes higher-level critical thinking
and increase student motivation.
Resistances
Faculty may be resistant to changing from comfortable lecture formats
to the more labor-intensive facilitation of group work.
Evolution/History
Long history from the 1930 and 1940s from studies by Kurt Lewin who looked
at ways to increased learning by balancing competition and cooperation
in classrooms. Popular for a while, there is even a cooperative education
journal from the mid part of the century. It lost momentum but has recently
been brought back with the interest in collaborative and active learning.
Link to Suggested
Readings
Articles on Cooperative Learning
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Critical Thinking
Summary of Reform
Critical thinking is an important college outcome, generally understood
to be the ability to properly construct and evaluate an argument. Research
indicates that generic classes in critical thinking do not carry over
well to disciplines so there is currently an emphasis on integrating this
development into content courses. Thinking across the curriculum like
writing across the curriculum. Techniques for teaching include: in-class
free writing; pre- or -in classroom questions to guide discussion or assignments;
small group activities, inter-group debates, solving open-ended problems,
pre-writing activities, multiple drafts of papers, peer editing, quizzes.
Successful institutional efforts have involved more than one-time seminars
on techniques for developing critical thinking. Some ways to supplement
individual faculty efforts are working group of faculty across disciplines
to read work on critical thinking together, sharing experiments to integrate
methods into courses over sustained period of time, round table or luncheons
over the semester innovations are introduced, stipend to help faculty
transform classes.
Level of Institutionalization
Individual classroom change. Efforts can be enhanced by institutional
support but few resources are needed.
Outcomes
This reform is an outcome.
Process
For the most part, critical thinking is dependent on faculty pedagogical
changes, that is, it involves changing assignments, feedback on assignments,
standards and class expectations, and way material presented by introduction
to methods for developing critical thinking and models of intellectual
development.
Target of Reform
Both students and faculty; but mostly faculty since they are being asked
to be more attuned to pedagogy and to assess whether they are teaching
this skill.
Resistances
Several critiques have been offered since critical thinking arises out
of a particular way of viewing and evaluating reality and can make students
feel other methods are not worthwhile. Not all statements of knowledge
can be or should be made as propositions, so critical thinking is not
always applicable, but this is often not emphasized to students. The problem
is that it absolutizes the analytical process which can lead to cognitive
passivity and lack of creativity among students in choice of learning
appproaches.
Evolution/History
During the 1970's there was a major effort to develop experimental courses
in critical thinking development, mostly as elective courses which varied
from teaching logic, study skills, informal fallacies, and decision making.
Following criticism in the mid-1980's that this was not an effective method,
critical thinking courses came to be integrated into the formal curriculum
of many college and universities. This skill is seen as critical in a
democratic society based on an informed and critical citizenry.
Link to Suggested
Readings
Articles on Critical Thinking
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General Education
Summary of Reform
Although general education reform varies from institution to institution,
central to this reform are the concepts of content, coherence, and comprehensiveness.
The idea of content relates to what students should know and be able to
do with that knowledge after graduation. The idea of coherence has emerged,
to a large degree, in response to the fragmentation of the general curriculum.
A coherent general curriculum seeks to restore higher levels of intentionally,
clarity, and rationale to the curriculum. Related to the issue of coherence
is integration of knowledge. As a result, interdisciplinary arrangements
are important to general education reform. The third idea, comprehensiveness,
involves the rethinking of the general curriculum. Such reflection considers
content, appropriate pedagogies, and the institutional support needed.
Level of Institutionalization
General education reform requires changes or modifications of the existing
formal curricula, a such, it requires institutional level support and
panning for effective implementation.
Outcomes
Inquiry, abstract logical thinking, critical analysis, literacy, understanding
numerical data, historical consciousness, science literacy, development
of values, appreciation of arts, multicultural and international experiences
and understandings, and in depth knowledge of a set of given subjects.
Description of
Assessment
Historically, institutions have assessed their general education on their
own initiative and done so as a starting point for curriculum reform.
However, in the wake of public scrutiny, politicians, agencies, and associations
are calling colleges and universities to determine what students should
study and to demonstrate the extent to which such learning has taken place.
Resistances
Many of the resistances to general education reform are similar to the
resistance to science reforms. Student culture is seen as a barrier as
students often feel they are not being taught and are resentful and skeptical
as a result. Faculty and students are both frustrated at times because
these classes move more slowly creating a perception that students are
not learning as much content as they would in a traditionally structured
environment.
Evolution/History
While the concern with general education has a long history, the current
focus on the core curriculum began in the late 1970s and continued into
the early 1980s. Since this time, faculty and staff from the majority
of American colleges and universities have engaged in discussions, seeking
to identify constructive means for improving general education.
Connection to Other
reforms
The breadth of this reform and its varied outcomes suggest connections
to many other reforms. For the most part, general education refers to
the "core" curriculum of a university or college. It is related
closely to Critical Thinking, cultural literacy, less specialization
and greater coherence, higher standards, and interdisciplinary study.
See Also Model
Innovations - Critical Thinking
Link to Suggested
Readings
Articles on General Education
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Learning Communities
Summary of Reform
Learning communities are a deliberate restructuring of the curriculum
to build a small community of learners among students and faculty within
the larger structure of the university or college. Learning communities
generally redefine the curriculum so that students are actively engaged
in a sustained academic relationship with other students and faculty over
a longer period of their time than is possible in traditional courses.
Learning communities help to change the culture of an institution toward
collaboration between academic and student affairs and among faculty in
terms of shared teaching, syllabi, and student mentoring.
Level of Institutionalization
Structural and curricular changes are necessary to create learning communities
so institutional commitment tends to be strong.
Outcomes
Students feel more motivated and empowered, retention of content and institutional
retention of students both improve within learning communities. Students
develop peer groups and friendships, including students who commute and
are not on the campus in a traditional full-time fashion; students are
better able to integrate social and academic needs.
Resistances
Some resistance exists, due to the perceived need for extensive additional
resources to make structural changes. Some faculty resist teaching classes
in residence halls, team-teaching or working collaboratively.
Evolution/History
Learning communities evolved out of the concept of living and learning
environments. What makes this reform distinct is that it focuses more
on curricular and pedagogical changes that enhance linking and coordinating
of curriculum rather than out-of-classroom experiences.
Link to Suggested
Readings
Articles on Learning Communities
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Science Reform
Summary of Reform
Reforms involve both faculty development efforts and curricular modification.
NSF has provided grants for faculty enhancement that have been used to
put on workshops that focus on experiential, collaborative, cooperative,
active and interdisciplinary teaching. Many of these teaching methods
center on collaboration or groups that help to build community that has
been illustrated to enhance learning. There is a specific focus on increasing
faculty's abilities to use technology and find an effective balance between
teaching and research. Finally, there is an attempt to change faculty
culture in order to make new pedagogies and new ways to approach learning
more acceptable. Curricular changes focus on a move to a problem solving
or problem centered curriculum that is interdisciplinary around themes
such as evolution, stability and change. The emphasis on interdisciplinary
teaching and curriculum is meant to foster students understanding of connections
between various ways of looking at the world through different disciplinary
lens. There is an emphasis on examples and process other than simply memorizing
facts. A more general move from facts and formulas to the use of and active
engagement of material is made.
Level of Institutionalization
Science Reforms are discipline specific for most aspects. Some changes
such as technology and new forms of pedagogy may involve greater institutional
involvement.
Outcomes
Increase the number of students in introductory and general science courses;
increase the number of science majors and graduate students entering sciences;
address the low number of women and minorities majoring in science.
Process
These initiatives seem to be some of the most comprehensive in terms of
process since it involves faculty development, curriculum, changes in
student culture, partnerships with K-12, new forms of pedagogy, different
ways about thinking about learning. Because of this comprehensive process
it provides a model of improvement initiatives encompassing almost all
of the other singular reforms.
Description of
assessment
Assessment is quite extensive both at the institutional and national level.
Funding for the assessment of science reform has come from NSF and the
National Research Council who, in association with Alexander Astin conducted
a study in 1992 of the impact of college environments on the educational
pipeline in the sciences.
Resistances
Some resistance stems from the need for increased resources; faculty need
time set aside in order to revamp their curriculum, in addition to extra
funding for computers, altered institutional infrastructures to accommodate
new facilities and different scheduling requirements for a workshop and
research based approach to science. Barriers to this change also include
faculty rewards systems that do not encourage the type of pedagogical
and curricular changes required. Faculty culture is a major barrier related
to collaboration, pedagogy. Barrier to long term change is intermittent
funding for innovation based on political pressures.
Evolution/History
Over the past 150 years, concern about science and technology in higher
education has waxed and waned. The current science reforms have typically
evolved mostly out of criticism of science lodged in the 1980's by groups
such as the American Association for the Advancement of Science. The specific
criticism focused on high attribution in the sciences, declining numbers
of students majoring in science, and low numbers of women majoring in
science. In addition, complaints were heard from industry that students
were ill equipped for work.
Link to Suggested
Readings
Articles on Science Reform
TOP
Service Learning
Summary of Reform
Service-learning utilizes experience and practice to engage students in
areas that may be difficult to teach through abstract reasoning, such
as empathy, civic responsibility, the value of volunteerism. It also claims
to enhance outcomes such as critical thinking that are associated with
traditional forms of pedagogy and curriculum. Service learning is distinct
from community service in that it combines a formal structured learning
experience or process through preparation sessions and reflection experiences.
Some distinguish that service learning must be integrated into the formal
curriculum and can not be co-curricular programming.
Level of Institutionalization
Service learning is most successful when institutionalized through the
development of a center on campus to centralize and support efforts, though
it can be integrated by individual faculty members into their classrooms.
Outcomes
Moral development, social and civic responsibility.
Resistances
Experiential learning has been resisted by some faculty (and students
to some degree) since it emphasizes a concrete approach to learning that
is in conflict with the traditional faculty culture.
Evolution/History
Service Learning has a long tradition that evolved out of Deweyian notions
of learning by doing. There was a major emphasis on integrating service
learning into the curriculum in the late 1960s and early 1970s. It resurged
in the early 1990s as a result of President Clinton's National Service
Plan. Americorps has been institutionalized at the federal level encouraging
the idea of serving and learning.
Link to Suggested
Readings
Articles on Service Learning
TOP
Undergraduate Research
Summary of Reform
This reform involves undergraduate students (recently shifting more toward
first and second year students) in faculty research projects in a similar
fashion to that of graduate research assistants. Students have the opportunity
to engage in research assignments under the mentorship of a faculty member,
participate in research meetings, and witness results in progress. Students
are responsible for maintaining records of their work, and fulfilling
their assignments. Engagement in the knowledge production process and
the concomitant networking opportunities offer the opportunity to develop
skills applicable to summer internships, conference presentations, and
better opportunites after graduation.
Level of Institutionalization
While supported at the institutional level, these programs are generally
discipline specific, primarily in the sciences.
Outcomes
Undergraduate research programs have been a key tool in attempting to
increase interest in the science and technical fields, in research careers,
and especially in encouraging minority/female participation in the sciences.
Students have a higher assessment of their own academic potential, and
set their academic goals higher as a result. Faculty have a more positive
impression of undergraduate ability and shift their teaching styles accordingly.
Faculty-student mentorships are created from these programs, likewise,
faculty are able to bridge the research-teaching gulf, creating lively
material for their students while getting fresh perspective in their research.
This is especially critical at non-doctoral granting institutions, at
which students are filling a gap in research help for faculty.
Description of
Assessment
Assessment at the program level targeting the effect on student performance,
student self-assessment of intellectual ability, faculty attitudes toward
students, and the operating mechanics of the program itself.
Resistances
These programs are expensive and complex to administer. Faculty may be
skeptical that undergraduates, particularly first and second year students,
are capable of meaningful participation in the research process or of
high-level, analytical thinking such involvement requires.
Evolution/History
In the 1970s, many graduate schools were creating junior and senior level
research programs for minority students to interest them in graduate school
and prepare them for the higher level of work required. The Council on
Undergraduate Research formed in 1978 to promote undergraduate research
in the sciences by students at predominately undergraduate colleges. These
movements in the late 1980s and 1990s have shifted toward freshmen and
sophomores, involving them in research earlier in their college experience.
Link to Suggested
Readings
Articles on Undergraduate
Research
TOP
Undergraduate Teaching and Learning Improvement
Initiatives - Definitions
Teaching and Learning
Directly related to academic degree plan or classroom goals and outcomes.
Emphasizes cross-discipline and cross-departmental initiatives, skills,
and involvement. Interdisciplinary or a component of the general education
program. Learning goes beyond content to the more abstract skills of knowledge
creation that students can apply to other areas (higher-order thinking
skills). Teaching incorporates both intentions for skills development
and results of activities implemented to develop skills. Content is the
format by which skills will be transmitted.
Improvement
Positive change associated with outcomes that can be measured through
assessment techniques. Occurs in response to challenge and criticism of
the status quo. Increases the quality and/or value of teaching and learning.
Movement
A teaching and learning activity that is defined and in use across multiple
institutions; national conversations have developed and are taking place.
The activity is often ‘grassroots’, moving from ground-up, as
opposed to top-down. It must be a collective action, whose goal is a conceptual
change or paradigm shift.
Reform
An institutional or departmental, top-down effort to change undergraduate
teaching and learning. Distinguished from a ‘movement’ by the
top-down (versus grassroots) effort.
Innovation
A bottom-up, grass roots effort to change undergraduate teaching and learning.
Often taking place in individual classrooms as the result of faculty creativity
and insight into the pedagogical process and classroom dynamics.
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