Islamic Courts Union

Formed2000
DisbandedJanuary 2007
First AttackSeptember 18, 2006: The ICU was allegedly behind two suicide car attacks in Baidoa, the base of the TFG. President Abdulahi Yusuf escaped the attacks but his younger brother and others died (12 killed, 10 wounded).[1]
Last AttackMarch 21, 2007: Violent clashes between ICU and Ethiopian troops erupted in the streets of Mogadishu. Bodies of Ethiopian troops were desecrated, set on fire and dragged through the streets (13 killed).[2]
UpdatedMarch 6, 2012

Narrative Summary

The Islamic Courts Union (ICU) formed in 2000 from 11 autonomous courts that worked to bring order to Somalia in a power vacuum created by the ousting of former leader Siad Barre in 1991 and the collapse of the AIAI by Ethiopian forces in 1997. The first court was founded in Mogadishu in 1993 under Sheikh Ali Dheere. Up until 2000, the 11 courts operated separately and each court's jurisdiction was limited to a specific neighborhood.[3] 

In 2000, the courts unified to form the ICU in an attempt to establish decisions across clan lines rather than just within clans.[4] Former Somali Armed Force Colonel, Sheikh Dahir Aweys and Sheikh Ali Dheere led the Shariah Implementation Council, responsible for unifying the courts and their consolidation under Islamic law.[5] 

Together the Islamic Courts fought robbery, drugs, banned films they deemed inappropriate, and tackled major crimes in north Mogadishu.[6] Although the courts claimed to be a unifying factor for Somalia, stressing Islam over clan allegiance, the Hawiye clan ruled 10 of the 11 courts. The ICU attempted to overcome this challenge by having each court try members of their own sub-clan. 

In 2006 the ICU took control over Mogadishu  and unified it for the first time in 16 years. By October 2006, the group reigned over a majority of Southern Somalia and fought against the Transitional Federal Government (TFG) created in 2004.[7] The Arab League attempted to reconcile differences between the Ethiopian-backed TFG and the ICU, but negotiations held in Khartoum failed and Ethiopia invaded Somalia in December 2006.[8] The battle was swift, as nine days after the clashes began with the Ethiopian backed TFG, the ICU surrendered. 

By January 2007 the ICU was effectively dismembered by the TFG.  The Ethiopian military and ICU leaders signed a resignation agreement while ICU members handed over their weapons to pro-TFG clans.[9] While the ICU disintegrated, the court's militant wing, Al Shabab, operated by Adan Hashi Ayro, persisted in fighting the TFG and foreign forces.[10]

Leadership

The Islamic Courts Unions is divided into 11 courts. Sharif Sheikh Ahmed was considered a moderate who led the courts to create order in Somalia. He was in his early 30's when the ICU came to power. Ahmed graduated with a law degree from Libya and was a former secondary school geography teacher.[11] In June 2006 Sharrif Sheikh Ahmed was demoted to the post of chairman of the executive committee after more radical leaders usurped control of the movement.[12] Sheikh Hassan Dahir Aweys, former head of the AIAI, replaced Ahmed as leader and led one of the two courts that was considered militant. 

Adan Hashi Aryo was also a former AIAI leader and an Afghan-trained militia commander who led the second militant court. Aryo's militiamen have killed Somali nationals, five foreign aid workers, and BBC producer, Kate Peyton.[13] Aryo was charged in a Somaliland court for the murder of four foreign aid workers in 2003.[14] He was also responsible for the desecration of an Italian cemetery in Mogadishu and accused of killing peace activist, Abdulkadi Yahya Ali, in 2005. 

Al-Turki was a former AIAI leader and is suspected to have links to Al Qaeda. He was designated as a financer of terrorism under Executive Order 13224.[15]

  1. Fuad Mohammed Kalaf (Unknown to 2007): Education Official.[16]
  2. Adan Hashi Ayro (Unknown to 2008): Leader of al-Shabab military wing.[17]
  3. Sheikh Ali Dheere (1993 to Unknown): Founder of first court.[18]
  4. Sheikh Ali Dheere (2000 to Unknown): Founder.
  5. Hassan Abdullah Hersi al-Turki, aka Yusuf Indha'adde (2005 to 2006): Responsible for arming the courts, Deputy of the Executive Committee of the Islamic Courts Council, Head of military wing.[19]
  6. Sheikh Sharif Sheikh Ahmed (2006 to 2007): Former leader, Chairman of the Executive Committee.[20]

Ideology & Goals

The ICU claimed that its ultimate goal was to form an Islamic community to unify the country over clan allegiance, which tore the country apart for the previous fifteen years.[21] 

The group also attempted to unify the Somali diaspora.  Leader Sheikh Dahir Aweys stated on Shabelle Radio in 2006, "We will leave no stone unturned to integrate our Somali brothers in Kenya and Ethiopia and restore their freedom to live with their ancestors in Somalia."[22] 

Upon their ascension, the group implemented Shariah law, punishing thieves by cutting off their limbs, and sentencing murderers to death.[23] Yet some perceived the Courts as a "broad mosque," while others described its ideology as political, ranging from Quttubism to Wahabism, and engendering violent rhetoric against the West.[24]

Designated/Listed

The ICU was not designated, though after its collapse its remaining militant wing, al-Shabab was designated.

Resources

The ICU primarily relied on foreign assistance for its operations. However, according to Somali President Abdullahi Yusuf, the ICU allegedly enjoyed foreign support by radicals from Afghanistan, Chechnya, Arab nations and Europe who made up "a considerable number" of ICU members. He also stated that the ICU received "massive material, financial and military support form international terror networks."[25] 

The ICU was also supported by former AIAI members. For example, former AIAI leader Sheikh Ali Warsame reportedly sent 250,000 USD to the ICU in 2006.[26]

External Influences

Some analysts believe the ICU was supported by Eritrea as a counterbalance to Ethiopia's support of the TFG.[27] Jendayi Fraser, US Assistant Secretary for African affairs accused Eritrea of militarily supporting the ICU and stated that the presence of Dahir Aweys at a meeting in Asmara was evidence that Eritrea is a culprit in the sponsoring of terrorism.[28]

A report by the Rand Corporation claimed that Dijibouti, Egypt, Eritrea, Iran, Libya, Lebanese Hezbollah, Saudi Arabia, and Syria had provided weapons, training, and logistical support to the ICU, with Yemen arms-trading networks sending arms almost exclusively to the ICU after its ascension to power. [29] 


Geographical Locations

At its peak, the ICU controlled most of Somalia's strategic points between the south and north such as the port city of Kismayo, Beletuein, Mogadishu, and the UN recognized TFG base in Baidoa.[30]

Overall, the ICU focused its efforts on internal affairs and neighboring areas where Somalis are the predominant group.  The ICU declared war on Ethiopia on October 9, 2006 accusing Ethiopian troops of targeting Bur Haqaba, a town along the Mogadishu-Baidoa road. Sheikh Sharif Sheikh Ahmed announced the declaration, after the ICU had previously stated that they were training students for a jihad to defend Somalia.[31]  

In contrast to ICU,  Al Shabab, which emerged from the ICU, pursued an international agenda.[32] 

Targets & Tactics

Shortly after the ICU came to power, Somalia had 16 terrorist training camps, which helped train and staff foreign volunteers.[33]  

The ICU used suicide bombings, mortar attacks, ambushes, and shootings to target the Transitional Federal Government.  In addition, the group launched mortar attacks against African Union peacekeepers, Ethiopian troops, and government officials. Such tactics were not endemic to the region and suggest that, "The Islamic Courts were importing tactics from both Al Qaeda and Hezbollah." For example, evidence existed that the explosives used in ICU's first suicide bombing in Baidoa were tested and refined by Al Qaeda and Hezbollah in Chechnya, Afghanistan, Iraq, and Lebanon.[34]


Political Activities

The courts began as a judicial system in the 1990s, dominating only in civil affairs.  However the ICU later transformed into a political apparatus. The 11 courts started validating transactions such as the purchase of houses and cars. They sanctioned weddings and divorces and their authority expanded across Mogadishu.[35] Still the courts emphasized that they did not want to enter politics, as Sharif Sheikh Ahmed stated, "This body is not a political one. Rather we want to give power back to the Somali people so it can make its own decisions and decide its own destiny."[36] 

However, as the TFG formed in 2004, the ICU "emerged as a major player in Somali politics alongside the TFG, establishing itself as a new reality that controlled Mogadishu and increased its sphere of influence to other areas," secluding the TFG to its small base in Baidoa.[37] 

In 2006 in an interview with CNN, the ICU stated it had met with TFG cabinet ministers and parliament members in an effort to "bring stability to the region." However, the ICU admitted inherent tensions between the two groups as the TFG is backed by foreign troops and the ICU's goal was to expel foreign influence from the region.[38] 

The ICU also attempted to establish control of arms traffic in the region by attacking pirates at the port of Harardheere in August 2006. Yet after the extrication of the ICU from power, piracy increased off the Somali coast with incidents rising from 10 in 2006 to 31 in 2007.[39]

Major Attacks

  1. September 2006: The ICU killed a thirteen year old boy and wounded others for viewing a soccer match on TV, after which they killed a 65 year old Italian nun and her body guard in retaliation for the Pope's statements on Islam (3 killed, 3 wounded).[40]
  2. September 18, 2006: The ICU was accused of being behind two suicide car attack in Baidoa, the base of the TFG. President Abdulahi Yusuf escaped the attacks but his younger brother and others died (12 killed, 10 wounded).[41]
  3. November 20, 2006: The ICU claimed responsibility for the ambush of an Ethiopian military column of eighty vehicles with bombs and small arms (6 killed, 20 wounded).[42]
  4. March 13, 2007: The ICU mortar attacked the presidential palace as President Abdullahi Yusuf was moving in. The President was unharmed but a boy was killed as mortars fell on his house (1 killed).[43]
  5. March 20, 2007: The ICU organized a strike on the capital seaport as African Union soldiers were securing the area for the arrival of military equipment. A UN convoy was also attacked injuring Somali policemen (5 killed, 3 wounded ).[44]
  6. March 21, 2007: Violent clashes between ICU and Ethiopian troops erupted in the streets of Mogadishu. Bodies of Ethiopian troops were desecrated, set on fire and dragged through the streets reminiscent of Black Hawk Down in 1993 (13 killed).[45]

Relationships with Other Groups

The ICU opposed the Alliance for the Restoration of Pease and Counter-terrorism (ARPCT).[46] The ARPCT was an alliance of secular warlords. Though it was considered to be backed by the United States to counter Al Qaeda's growing influence, the ARPCT was defeated in June 2006.[47] The ICU seized hold of the warlord's ammunition and absorbed the militias to take over Mogadishu. [48] 

The ICU maintained an affiliation with Al Qaeda during its existence. The group regularly released propaganda videos through Al Qaeda's media branch.[49] Furthermore, as the ICU rose to power, international jiadhist leaders such as Osama Bin Laden hoped to leverage the nascent Islamic group for its goals. In a tape filmed in 2006, Bin Laden stated, "We will continue, God willing, to fight you and your allies everywhere, in Iraq and Afghanistan and in Somalia and Sudan, until we waste all your money and kill your men, and you will return to your country in defeat as we defeated you before in Somalia," a direct reference to the rise of the ICU. The US accused the ICU of sheltering three Al Qaeda operatives that were responsible for the 1998 US embassy attacks in Kenya and Tanzania. These same members are believed to be culprits in the 2002 suicide bombings of an Israeli-owned hotel in Kenya, along with an attempt to shoot down an Israeli airliner that was flying over Kenya.[50]

Community Relationships

The ICU improved security for Somalis compared to the previous chaotic rule of warlords.[51] Because of its provision of security, the group was supported by the Somali business community[52] and was also popular among many Somali residents who enjoyed ICU-provided education and medicine.[53] Reports stated that the ICU reopened airports and seaports, brought a safer and cleaner city, which made it popular in the eyes of young boys and refugees that desired to return to a stable Somalia. Thus when the Ethiopian government invaded Somalia to topple the ICU, Somali men in the diaspora considered this a threat to Somalia's stability and returned to the country to fight.[54] 

The ICU also enjoyed the legacy of the social infrastructure left behind by the AIAI. AsTimes explains, "Much as Hamas in Gaza or Hizballah in Lebanon, the Islamists spent years winning support among the Somali public by running medical clinics, schools and courts. Ten years on, much of the leaders of the AIAI now help run the Islamic Courts Union."[55] Though not all agree with the Islamic rule, Mogadishu residents claimed they would rather live under Islamic preachers than under warlords who have treated the city as looting grounds.[56] Yet ICU was repressive in their imposition of Shariah law and their rule is often compared to the rule of the Taliban prior to 2001. 

The ICU forbade music, movies, and the viewing of the World Cup, all of which were deemed as "Western Culture" and could be punished by public execution.[57] Other punishments included cutting off the limbs of petty thieves, decisions that were enforced by the armed militias that clans and warlords provided the courts.[58] The group conducted mass arrests of Somalis for listening to live music at weddings, and arrested a karate instructor and his female students for conducting coed classes.[59]  In addition, the ICU attempted to ban khot, a popular Somali drug, which aroused strong opposition and riots.[60] Such harsh legal implementations eventually led to the ICU losing its support among the population.


References

  1. ^ "Report on Terrorist Incidents-2006," National Counterterrorism Center, April 30, 2007 from http://www.fbi.gov/stats-services/publications/terror_06.pdf
  2. ^ Peck, Sally. "Fierce street battles erupt in Somalia," The Telegraph, March 21, 2007 from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/1546280/Fierce-street-battles-erupt-in-Somalia.html
  3. ^ Rand, "Radical Islam in East Africa," Rand Corporation, 2009 from http://www.rand.org/pubs/monographs/2009/RAND_MG782.pdfs
  4. ^ "Islamist Control of Mogadishu Raises Concern of Extremist Future for Somalia," PBS News Hour, June 8, 2006 from http://www.pbs.org/newshour/updates/africa/jan-june06/somalia_06-08.html
  5. ^ "Background and Political Developments," AMISOM, from http://www.africa-union.org/root/au/auc/departments/psc/amisom/AMISOM_Background.htm
  6. ^ "Profile: Somali's Islamic Courts," BBC News, June 6, 2006 from http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/5051588.stm
  7. ^ "The Supreme Islamic Courts Union/al-Ittihad Mahakem al-Islamiya (ICU)," GlobalSecurity.org, from http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/para/icu.htm
  8. ^ Rand, "Radical Islam in East Africa," Rand Corporation, 2009 from http://www.rand.org/pubs/monographs/2009/RAND_MG782.pdfs
  9. ^ Roggio, Bill. "The Fall of the Islamic Courts," The Long War Journal, December 27, 2006 from http://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2006/12/the_fall_of_the_isla.php
  10. ^ "The Supreme Islamic Courts Union/al-Ittihad Mahakem al-Islamiya (ICU)," GlobalSecurity.org, from http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/para/icu.htm
  11. ^ "Profile: Somali's Islamic Courts," BBC News, June 6, 2006 from http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/5051588.stm 82.pdfs
  12. ^ Rand, "Radical Islam in East Africa," Rand Corporation, 2009 from http://www.rand.org/pubs/monographs/2009/RAND_MG782.pdfs
  13. ^ "Profile: Somali's Islamic Courts," BBC News, June 6, 2006 from http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/5051588.stm
  14. ^ "The Supreme Islamic Courts Union/al-Ittihad Mahakem al-Islamiya (ICU)," GlobalSecurity.org, from http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/para/icu.htm
  15. ^ Rand, "Radical Islam in East Africa," Rand Corporation, 2009 from http://www.rand.org/pubs/monographs/2009/RAND_MG782.pdfs
  16. ^ West, Sunguta. "Somalia's ICU Declares Holy War on Ethiopia," Jamestown Foundation, October 17, 2006 from http://www.jamestown.org/single/?no_cache=1&tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=934
  17. ^ RAND, "Radical Islam in East Africa," Rand Corporation, 2009 from http://www.rand.org/pubs/monographs/2009/RAND_MG782.pdfs ND_MG782.pdfs
  18. ^ Rand, "Radical Islam in East Africa," Rand Corporation, 2009 from http://www.rand.org/pubs/monographs/2009/RAND_MG782.pdfs
  19. ^ RAND, "Radical Islam in East Africa," Rand Corporation, 2009 from http://www.rand.org/pubs/monographs/2009/RAND_MG782.pdfs
  20. ^ West, Sunguta. "Somalia's ICU Declares Holy War on Ethiopia," Jamestown Foundation, October 17, 2006 from http://www.jamestown.org/single/?no_cache=1&tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=934
  21. ^ "Profile: Somali's Islamic Courts," BBC News, June 6, 2006 from http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/5051588.stm
  22. ^ Roggio, Bill. "Former Islamic Courts Leader elected president of Somalia," The Long War Journal, January 31, 2009 from http://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2009/01/former_islamic_court.php
  23. ^ "Profile: Somali's Islamic Courts," BBC News, June 6, 2006 from http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/5051588.stm
  24. ^ Barnes, Cedric, SOAS, Hassan, Huran, SMC. "The Rise and Fall of Mogadishu's Islamic Courts," chathamhouse.org, April 2007 from http://www.chathamhouse.org.uk/files/9130_bpsomalia0407.pdf
  25. ^ Roggio, Bill. "Former Islamic Courts Leader elected president of Somalia," The Long War Journal, January 31, 2009 from http://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2009/01/former_islamic_court.php
  26. ^ Rand, "Radical Islam in East Africa," Rand Corporation, 2009 from http://www.rand.org/pubs/monographs/2009/RAND_MG782.pdf
  27. ^ "The Supreme Islamic Courts Union/al-Ittihad Mahakem al-Islamiya (ICU)," GlobalSecurity.org, from http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/para/icu.htm
  28. ^ Blunt, Elizabeth. "US gives start warning to Eritrea," BBC News, September 8, 2007 from  http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6985656.stm
  29. ^ Rand, "Radical Islam in East Africa," Rand Corporation, 2009 from http://www.rand.org/pubs/monographs/2009/RAND_MG782.pdfs
  30. ^ Gartenstein-Ross, Daveed. "The Strategic Challenge of Somalia's Al-Shabaab," Middle East Forum, Fall 2009, from http://www.meforum.org/2486/somalia-al-shabaab-strategic-challenge
  31. ^ West, Sunguta. "Somalia's ICU Declares Holy War on Ethiopia," Jamestown Foundation, October 17, 2006 from http://www.jamestown.org/single/?no_cache=1&tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=934
  32. ^ Gartenstein-Ross, Daveed. "The Strategic Challenge of Somalia's Al-Shabaab," Middle East Forum, Fall 2009, from http://www.meforum.org/2486/somalia-al-shabaab-strategic-challenge
  33. ^ Gartenstein-Ross, Daveed. "The Strategic Challenge of Somalia's Al-Shabaab," Middle East Forum, Fall 2009, from http://www.meforum.org/2486/somalia-al-shabaab-strategic-challenge
  34. ^ Gartenstein-Ross, Daveed. "The Strategic Challenge of Somalia's Al-Shabaab," Middle East Forum, Fall 2009, from http://www.meforum.org/2486/somalia-al-shabaab-strategic-challenge
  35. ^ "Profile: Somali's Islamic Courts," BBC News, June 6, 2006 from http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/5051588.stm
  36. ^ "Islamist Control of Mogadishu Raises Concern of Extremist Future for Somalia," PBS News Hour, June 8, 2006 from http://www.pbs.org/newshour/updates/africa/jan-june06/somalia_06-08.html
  37. ^ "Background and Political Developments," AMISOM, from http://www.africa-union.org/root/au/auc/departments/psc/amisom/AMISOM_Background.htm
  38. ^ "Islamist leader: Somalia can solve its own troubles," CNN World, June 13, 2006 from http://articles.cnn.com/2006-06-13/world/cnna.sheikhahmed_1_islamic-courts-union-foreign-troops-islamist?_s=PM:WORLD
  39. ^ Rand, "Radical Islam in East Africa," Rand Corporation, 2009 from http://www.rand.org/pubs/monographs/2009/RAND_MG782.pdf
  40. ^ Roggio, Bill. "Suicide Strikes in Somalia," The Long War Journal, September 18, 2006 from http://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2006/09/suicide_strikes_in_s.php
  41. ^ Roggio, Bill. "Suicide Strikes in Somalia," The Long War Journal, September 18, 2006 from http://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2006/09/suicide_strikes_in_s.php}} {{"Report on Terrorist Incidents-2006," National Counterterrorism C
  42. ^ Roggio, Bill. "Ethiopian Convoy Ambushed in Aweys, Greater Somalia," The Long War Journal, November 20, 2006 from http://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2006/11/ethiopian_convoy_amb.php
  43. ^ "Somali president's home attacked," March 13, 2007 from http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6446655.stm
  44. ^ "Somali Insurgents Strike Seaport," BBC News, March 20, 2007 from http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6470167.stm
  45. ^ Peck, Sally. "Fierce street battles erupt in Somalia," The Telegraph, March 21, 2007 from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/1546280/Fierce-street-battles-erupt-in-Somalia.html
  46. ^ "The Supreme Islamic Courts Union/al-Ittihad Mahakem al-Islamiya (ICU)," GlobalSecurity.org, from http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/para/icu.htm
  47. ^ "Somalia," Africa Policy Institute, from http://www.africapi.org/countries.php?CID=24
  48. ^ Roggio, Bill. "The Rise & Fall of Somali's Islamic Courts: An Online History," The Long War Journal, January 4, 2007 from http://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2007/01/the_rise_fall_of_som.php
  49. ^ "Factions begin talks about future of Somalia," msnbc.com, June 8, 2006 from http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/13167805/ns/world_news-africa/t/factions-begin-talks-about-future-somalia/
  50. ^ "Factions begin talks about future of Somalia," msnbc.com, June 8, 2006 from http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/13167805/ns/world_news-africa/t/factions-begin-talks-about-future-somalia/
  51. ^ "Profile: Somali's Islamic Courts," BBC News, June 6, 2006 from http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/5051588.stm
  52. ^ Barnes, Cedric. Hassan, Harun. "Details for the Rise and Fall of Mogadishu's Islamic Courts," Foreign and Commonwealth Office, 2007, from http://www.stabilisationunit.gov.uk/stabilisation-and-conflict-resources/thematic/doc_details/190-the-rise-and-fall-of-mogadishus-islamic-courts.html
  53. ^ "The Supreme Islamic Courts Union/al-Ittihad Mahakem al-Islamiya (ICU)," GlobalSecurity.org, from http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/para/icu.htm
  54. ^ Elmi, Khadra. "Distant Voices and the ties that bind: identity, politics and Somali diaspora youth," Conciliation Resources, from http://www.c-r.org/our-work/accord/somalia/distant-voices.php
  55. ^ Robinson, Simon. "Is a New Islamic War Brewing in Africa?" Time World, July 24, 2006 from http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1218273,00.html
  56. ^ "Profile: Somali's Islamic Courts," BBC News, June 6, 2006 from http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/5051588.stm
  57. ^ "The Supreme Islamic Courts Union/al-Ittihad Mahakem al-Islamiya (ICU)," GlobalSecurity.org, from http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/para/icu.htm
  58. ^ "Islamist Control of Mogadishu Raises Concern of Extremist Future for Somalia," PBS News Hour, June 8, 2006 from http://www.pbs.org/newshour/updates/africa/jan-june06/somalia_06-08.html
  59. ^ Gartenstein-Ross, Daveed. "The Strategic Challenge of Somalia's Al-Shabaab," Middle East Forum, Fall 2009, from http://www.meforum.org/2486/somalia-al-shabaab-strategic-challenge
  60. ^ Rand, "Radical Islam in East Africa," Rand Corporation, 2009 from http://www.rand.org/pubs/monographs/2009/RAND_MG782.pdfs

Print this page

Contents

Search