In Other Words: The Science and Psychology of Second-Language Acquisition

by Ellen Bialystok and Kenji Hakuta
New York: Basic Books, 1994
246 pp. $15.00

-Bialystok and Hakuta

Why is it that some people succeed while others fail in their attempt to learn a second language? What is it about attitude or motivation that helps or hinders a learner with a second language? Is perfect proficiency and easy use of language accessible only to a special few among us who are linguistically gifted? These are three of many questions that Bialystok and Hakuta pose in In Other Words: The Science and Psychology of Second- Language Acquisition.

Second language learning is a complex process which develops under a diverse set of conditions. People learn a second language for various reasons. They have different backgrounds and learn different languages under different circumstances. Bialystok and Hakuta take on the challenge of explaining this heterogeneous process. The authors' purpose in writing this book is to provide a comprehensive theoretical review on the process of second language learning and teaching. Bialystok and Hakuta explain the complex relationship that exists between different factors involved in an individual's attempt in learning a second language. They organize the book around five factors ( language, brain, mind, self, and culture) which they believe will make up the structure of second-language learning. The authors try to reach out to people who are concerned or interested with the problems of learning a second language. The interest range of this book is quite wide. People who are learning a second language (or have attempted in the past), individuals who are working in the field of language and language learning, as well as policy makers will find this book very useful and engaging.

For many years second language acquisition has been the subject of debate at both the individual and societal levels. Many linguists, psychologists, and anthropologists have done numerous studies on second language learning. However, each discipline has focused on a specific aspect of second-language learning. Bialystok and Hakuta remind the reader that vital components in understanding the nature of second language learning have been ignored. The authors are authorities on bilingual education research and policy. Hakuta's earlier book Mirror of Language- The debate on Bilingualism and Bialystok's Communication Strategies and Language Processing in Bilingual Children are highly respected. Their discussion on second-language learning is to the point and very informative.

The author's conclusions are very encouraging for individuals who are in the process of learning a second language and those who have been unsuccessful in the past and wish to give learning a second language another try. Bialystok and Hakuta announce that "There are no absolute barriers to second-language acquisition". (207) They also remind language educators that no single correct method is sufficient by itself in producing language proficient learners. Additionally, educators are encouraged to consider using various teaching methods as well as the needs and desires of the learners when engaged in the process of teaching.

In the chapter on language, the authors address the role of the native language in learning a second language. After an in depth discussion of empiricism and its implications in the past three decades, they explain the paradigm shift from empiricism to cognitivism and its enormous consequences for language instruction and policy. Bialystok and Hakuta praise the work of linguists who have made important contributions (through research and debate) to achieving a better understanding of second-language acquisition. At the same time, the authors remind researchers of the complex nature of second-language acquisition and of the dire need to stimulate more research.

Bialystok and Hakuta examine the evidence that is used to support different theories on the role of the brain in learning a second language in the next chapter. They pose the following question: "How is it that the child, less capable in most things than the adult- learning algebra and understanding the gist of foreign movies among them- would be more capable of learning and using the complex structures of French, German, or Urdu?" (52) The authors suggest that one of the reasons that children may be better in learning a second language is that they may have more opportunities to learn and practice. Bialystok and Hakuta are interested in studying the interdependency between biology, cognition, and experience in forming the "mental landscape" of our lives. On the topic of finding a critical period for learning a second language Bialystok and Hakuta point to a study done by Krashen, Scarcella, and Long (1982) which found that in the beginning, older learners and adults make more rapid progress than their younger counterparts. However, over time older learners' advantage is overtaken by younger learners. This is referred to as the "tortoise-and-hare-effect." It is important to note that Bialystok and Hakuta emphasize that by no means is age the only variable in measuring successful second-language acquisition. Social and experiential variables have very important roles in this equation.

In the chapter "Self," the authors examine the ways that people differ from each other in their success in learning a second language. The basic question of this chapter is: Given similar age, native language, and cognitive ability, why are some learners more adept at attempting to acquire a second language? Bialystok and Hakuta review several studies that focus on variables such as: language aptitude, intelligence, attitude, motivation, and personality. Acculturation is another factor that affects language learning. Differences in language, work habits, and personal abilities can influence the rate of acculturation. Additionally, the extent to which people desire and attempt to be integrated into a society will effect their rate of success in learning a second language. The authors state that there are many variables in proficiency or success in learning a new language. However, perfect mastery of a language does not exist. "Proficiency is what you need to do with the language, and the Good Language Learner is the person who finds the right skills to achieve a particular proficiency." (159) It may be that the gifted language learner has incorporated all the necessary factors needed for his/her language proficiency.

The following chapter is titled "mind." Bialystok and Hakuta explain that children's and adults' language learning are at different developmental stages. They explain that children face the tasks of building two systems. One is a conceptual system through which the world around them could be understood. The second is a linguistic one that enables them to express the concepts they have learned. Conversely, adults who are learning a second language do not need to relearn a conceptual system. They have already acquired that in their first language. The authors examine the origin of meanings and how they are embodied in the early language of young children. "If learning depends on already knowing something, how did we first learn the necessary background?"(89) Bialystok and Hakuta explain that we understand language because it is meaningful. They emphasize the importance of mind in the debate over human behavior theories. However, they realize that the nature and structure of the mind is under active speculation. Bialystok and Hakuta argue that complex ideas are made by compiling simple blocks. They use the analogy of Lego blocks (simple meaning unit) that are put together to make a complex constructions (meaningful speech). When individual words are put together to make meaningful speeches, the final product is more than the sum of its parts and has an identity of its own. They explain that language is learned by building on some existing structures and is not learned as an independent isolated system.

People learn a second language for various reasons. Some learn it because they love to travel and believe that learning a particular language will enable them to better understand a country and its people, while others need to learn a second language due to economic necessity. In the next chapter "Culture," Bialystok and Hakuta discuss cultural influences on language learning. Additionally, they emphasize the importance of cultural sensitivity in teaching a second language. The authors criticize the way foreign languages are taught in our nation's schools and attribute its failures to America's subtractive view of bilingualism. Bialystok and Hakuta believe minority languages are seen as a social stigma which may eventually be replaced by English. "It is the American thing to do: immigrant parents struggle with English, their children are bilingual, and their children's children are monolingual English-speakers. (192) The authors see our national policy toward foreign language education as incoherent and fragmented.

Our society is ignoring the language minority speakers. Thirty two million people(1990 U.S. Census) in this country possess a skill that takes years of hard work and thousands of dollars to acquire. Knowing a second language is a national resource that in many instances is being wasted. Ironically, children are forced to lose their native languages and years later are asked to take foreign language classes in order meet college entrance requirements. Only through a change of attitudes are we able to prevent this massive loss. This view has been expressed by experts in the field such as Padilla who states that : "Our ultimate goal should be a language-competent U.S. society. This means a society in which all newcomers and individuals from non-English homes have the opportunity to develop the highest possible degree of both social and academic proficiency in English without also having to surrender their home language."

Foreign language education has been seen by some educators as "extra", with no part in the heart of the curriculum. Foreign Language education is extremely important for world communication. In addition to fostering international cooperation and understanding, Foreign language education is essential for international commerce. United States is in the middle of a budget crisis. Members of congress as well as the local green grocer discuss our enormous budget deficit. The trade deficit with other industrialized nations has concerned economists and policy makers for years. Yet most are still under the illusion that any product made in the U.S.A. will find a buyer. American products need American sales representatives who are internationally wise. This means knowing the needs and wants of the customers. This means knowing their likes and dislikes. This means knowing their languages and cultures. Foreign language education is an extremely important component in a very competitive global market. Leaning a second language should not be a luxury reserved only for the upper class. Senator Paul Simon puts it well when he states that: " We are linguistically malnourished. Yet never in history has there been one nation with such a variety of ethnic and language backgrounds. This language inattention threatens our national security interests; the adverse impact on the nation's economy is immense." (p. 5) Our educational and political leaders should be reminded that the vast majority of the inhabitants of our planet are bilingual (if not multilingual). Educating the future generations bilingually is clearly in the interest of our country.

Bialystok and Hakuta should be applauded for their accessible and clever style of writing that enables the reader to better understand second language learning, a complex and intriguing subject. As French mathematician Blaise Pascal once wrote: "When we see a natural style we are quite amazed and delighted, because we expected to see an author and find a man." The authors have been quite successful in their attempt in explaining the intricate relationship that exists between various factors influencing second-language acquisition. In Other Words offers a thoughtful examination of this complex subject. This book is essential reading for policy makers, language practitioners as well as researchers. The general public curious about second-language learning will be pleasantly surprised. They will find this book insightful and informative.

Bialystok, E., 1991. Language Processing in Bilingual Children. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Bialystok, E., 1990. Communication Strategies : a psychological analysis of second-language use. Oxford: B. Blackwell.

Bialystok, E. and Hakuta, K., 1994 In Other Words: The Science and Psychology of Second- Language Acquisition. New York: Basic Books.

Hakuta, K., 1986. Mirror of Language: The debate on bilingualism. New York: Basic Books.

Krashen, S.D., Scarcella, R.C., and Long, M.H. 1982. Child- adult differences in second language acquisition, Rawley, Mass.: Newbury House.

Padilla , A.M., English Only vs. Bilingual Education: Ensuring a Language-Competent society. Journal of Education, Volume 173, Number 2, pp.38-51, 1991.

Simon, Paul., 1980. The Tongue-Tied American: Confronting the Foreign Language Crisis. New York: Continuum

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