Aquaculture and Farming Salmon

By Colin Shaughnessy

The worldwide salmon market is a competitive industry where the only one who really loses is the salmon themselves.  All over the world there are fisherman on a quest to catch as much salmon as they can and sell it to make a living.  As a result of this, and global warming, salmon pastures across the world are shrinking.  Salmon recovery programs are now included in such things as the budget, and strict codes are being placed on all bodies of water - rivers, lakes, streams, and oceans – as to the catching of salmon.  Artificial production has become a possibility in recent months, but the best alternative to depleting our oceans of fish is farming. 

It is an old, enticing dream: To farm the seas as we farm the land.1 As a result of depleting pastures of salmon in the oceans, the world decided to indulge in the market of farming fish, salmon was one of them.  The early efforts at farming salmon were in the late 1960’s in Norway.  But the salmon farming industry never really got off the ground until the 1970’s when technical problems had been overcome.  Throughout the eighties, a ‘gold rush’ effect swept over countries that farmed fish and the industry exploded.    Over the next 15 years the numbers of tonnes of farmed Salmon has continued to increase drastically.  The United States now is in the top 10 countries in terms of tonnes (tonne = metric ton. There are 2,204 pounds in a metric ton) of Salmon produced each year, after Scandinavian countries, Japan, China and Canada.  By 1995, fishing and farming around the world were producing 1.4 million tonnes of salmon.  Of this, 440,000 tonnes, or roughly one third of the fish was coming from farms.2   Farming fish had become an alternative that seemed to be working perfectly.

People have been fishing for thousands of years.  As worldwide catches of fish and shellfish from lakes, rivers, and oceans begin to level off, the farming of fish has attracted more attention internationally.  At the current rates of consumption and population growth, demand for fish will increase by 16 million tonnes by the year 2010.3  The need to farm fish is going to continue to increase as long as this fact is veritable.  Aquaculture, the act of farming fish and sea plants, is going to continue to grow.  China dominates all countries in fish farming.  China produced 57% of the worlds farmed fish.  The United States produces roughly 2.2% of the worlds farmed fish.4 

Aquaculture enjoys some advantages over raising stock or poultry.  First, fish are more efficient in converting food to flesh, being cold blooded they do not spend any energy to maintain their body temperature.  Some breeds of salmon have been developed that convert 1.1 to 1.2 pounds of food to one pound of flesh.  By comparison, cattle require 8.0, pigs 3.3, and poultry 2.0.5  Mostly, aquaculture has been used to achieve several objectives: to raise food to meet growing need and demand, to reduce the pressure applied to the wild fish population, and to promote economic development in rural areas.  Unfortunately, the benefits may no longer outweigh the consequences. 

Although it seems like a great idea and innovation to ‘farm’ fish, after almost two decades of uninterrupted growth there have been cited drawbacks.  Like most intensive forms of producing food, salmon farming has environmental and social costs that are understated and often ignored.  Marine wildlife, escaped fish, drugs, chemicals, and wastes are just to name a few environmental impacts. 

Much of the concern about farming salmon resulted from its rapid growth.  Between 1990-1991, farmed salmon production grew from about 7,190 metric tons to nearly 325,563 tonnes, an increase of 4,600 percent.6  It was an enormous financial boom, wherever cool sheltered waters were present, governments and industry invested in salmon farming.  Neither the governments nor industry people paid much attention to the possible environmental and social impacts.  Nor did governments address the larger issues, such as whether it makes sense to feed fish to fish or the impacts of salmon farming on a biological diversity.    Instead, until recently, governments and industries have been far more eager to expand farming. 

Wildlife communities in many bodies of water have been disrupted by the intentional and unintentional introduction of exotic species.  Often ignoring recommended guidelines for avoiding these problems, governments still allow, even encourage the importation of these foreign species.  While the most common of extinction causes in salmon has been the degradation of habitat by logging, agriculture, dams and such, salmon runs are vulnerable as well to the intentional or unintentional release of salmon raised for commercial purposes or to enhance the ‘wild’ populations.7  Salmon that have escaped from farms can threaten wild runs by spreading disease, breeding with the wild run salmon, and by competing for food and habitat.  Every year there are thousands upon thousands of salmon that escape farms and make their way in to the natural habitat. 

Another major problem caused by the farming of salmon is the infectious spread of disease and parasites.  Usually, the government has very strict regiments against the introduction of potentially diseased animals that may have agricultural production affects.  This is not the case when it comes to the introduction of diseased animals that may affect wild salmon.  The transfer of salmon eggs from farm to farm has, over time, regularly introduced disease into farm operations.  Along with the salmon that have escaped from the farms, there have been millions of salmon that have died due to infectious disease.  Farms in Norway have had to close for up to two years due to a disease that was accidentally brought in during a transfer of eggs from one farm to another.  Luckily, vaccines have been created to eliminate disease from these farms, and infectious rivers have become safe.

To combat the diseases and parasites, farmers have relied on various chemicals and drugs, including antibiotics.  Throughout the 80’s the drug usage in salmon pens grew rapidly, but thanks to the development of vaccines the numbers have steadily dropped, but not completely.  Of the drugs used today, at least ¾ of them are lost to the environment, whether the feed is eaten or not.  Little is known about the fate and effects of these drugs but it is known that they do not escape the immediate area of the pen.  High levels of the drugs have been measured in other near by animals, although the amounts were not traceable weeks later. 

Wastes in any production represent inefficient use of resources, whether it is from electrical plants, schools, or salmon farms.  The wastes generated from salmon farms and released into the environment squander resources.  Even in some circumstances these wastes can harm other wildlife and habitats.  Uneaten food and the feces of salmon accumulate on the bottom of the salmon pens.  These wastes effect the water quality in the immediate area at a minimum.  Depending on how strong the tides in the area are, wastes can remain in the area for some time, directly affecting the area beneath the pen.  These wastes deplete the oxygen level in the water, thus leading to dramatic changes in the community of animals that live beneath the salmon pens.  Algae blooms, which also accumulate from the wastes in salmon pens deplete the oxygen as well.  The depleted oxygen levels even remain after the algae are decomposing.  When confronted about the pollution caused by the farms, the farmers claim to know nothing about it.  They claim that they would avoid all pollution because they would be the first ones affected.

In order to preserve a salmon farm, the farmers must find ways to keep out predators.  After all, large numbers of salmon confined to a small area is a very inviting site to marine mammals and sea birds.   Farmers try to keep out the predators by a variety of means.  Some of these, such as netting, sometimes entangle and kill marine mammals and sea birds.  Estimates on the number of deaths vary, but in British Columbia, an estimated 500 harbor seals are killed each year.  On the other hand, harbor seals in the area are cited as responsible for the loss of $10 million in salmon each year.8  The farmers have tried to relocate their pens away from the seals, but the seals just continue to relocate their rookeries. 

Due to the public disapproval of the killing of the mammals and birds, farmers have been forced to look for other methods of harboring their salmon.  Underwater farming nets have been developed, along with nets that hover over the pens, to keep birds away.  Unfortunately, due to high cost and maintenance, few farms have chosen to use them.  High-pitched sound machines have also been developed to deter seals and sea lions away.  Early prognosis on the effectiveness is very good. 

As the environmental and social costs of industrial-scale aquaculture, particularly in salmon, becomes clearer, discussions about principles and proper methods for aquaculture have grown.  At a conference in Norway in 1995, the Holmenkollen Guidelines for Sustainable Industrial Fish Farming was developed.  The guidelines called for reduction in wastes and pollution, moving from fish feed to some other source of food, conserving genetic diversity, and cleaning up the organic pollution.  A year later, after years of negotiations, over a hundred countries developed a Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries.  It represents a global view of minimum standards for both capture fisheries and fish farming.  In dealing with the farming of salmon, the code calls for environmental and social assessments before fish farming begins, monitoring of the effluents, the use of drugs, and other activities.  The code also calls upon all countries to consult with neighboring countries when introducing non-indigenous species.  The code specifically calls for genetic diversity.

These meetings and codes that are being created are only going to be the beginning of a long process.  The first step that might need to be taken is the handling of salmon recovery outside the farms.  After all, the farms would never be needed if there were enough fish in the sea.  West Coast governors of the United States recently requested that$200 million be set aside in the budget for the recovery of salmon.  The main concern for the salmon along the Northwest coast of the US is habitat improvement.  The salmon are unable to live and aspire in the environment that has been left for them.  Unfortunately, the President only included $100 million in the budget for salmon recovery. 

With salmon pastures shrinking all over the world, it is imperative to take care of the natural habitat salmon.  With global warming occurring, the salmon are finding themselves with less and less available water for living.  The money designated in the budget is a start to finding a solution to the ongoing problem of over fishing.  Fisherman Kenny Neilson stated “The salmon market is very unique, we are able to produce enough fish through farming, but we would much rather get them through nature.”  Just this past January, there was a workshop held on artificial production of fish.  There is a great deal of criticism on the subject and much of the scientific information on the matter has been kept a secret.  The day may come when that is possible, but for now fish farms are the best alternative. 

The future of fish in general is one with a dark side.  Michael New, the president of the World Aquaculture Society, predicted that the demand for the fish and shellfish would increase from 119.6 million tonnes in 2000 to 162.4 million tonnes of fish in 2025, most of which due to the increased population.9  But this fact creates a big question: Where will all the fish come from? 

Many steps have begun in the process of dealing with the increasing need of fish.  Countries around the world realize that the pastures of all fish are shrinking and the time to react is now.  Promoters of salmon farming are sharing in this dramatic growth and are trying to develop new strands of salmon through breeding.  These new strands will grow faster and will convert food into flesh more efficiently. 

In Canada, farmers are experimenting with a gene that will allow fish to grow and prosper in winter conditions; the gene acts like an antifreeze of sorts.  So far no positive effects have been cited, but this research has lead to breeding of bigger, faster growing (400 to 600%) salmon.  The use of drugs and chemicals on these fish is being limited and even the Food and Drug Administration in the United States has not approved the use of these technologies.10 

The amount of farmed salmon predicted by Norwegian expert Robert Savannah, is expected to triple by the year 2005.  Therefore tests must continue to be made on the use of antibiotics in these salmon.  Someday, most salmon will come from farms and more fish will need to be farmed.  So improving the drawbacks in salmon farming is imperative.   Runaway salmon, wastes, the drugs and chemicals used, and the interference of marine wildlife are all problems that have been addressed and are now being dealt with.  But there may be more dramatic measures that need to be taken.

Maybe the problem is that there is too much salmon being consumed.  There may be too much salmon in the market.  If so, the existing salmon that is being produced should be better distributed throughout the world.  The emphasis should be on quality, not quantity. 

The wastes caused by salmon farms are also an important factor when looking for cures to the problems associated with these farms.  As mentioned earlier, if wastes are present, there is an inefficient use of resources.  Salmon farming is enormously wasteful of its resources, so finding ways to reuse these resources is a key.

Laws set forth against over fishing are abundant.  Laws set forth on farming fish are available but not as numerous.  Governments should insure that their programs on farming and fishing are coordinated and promote farming and fishing at levels that are ecologically and economically sustainable.

Salmon farming, and aquaculture in general, has a role to play in our future.  Fish all over the world are being caught and eaten in mass numbers.  Fish cannot reproduce fast enough to feed the world so farming fish will continue to become a major industry.  But first the problems with farming fish must be dealt with.

 

 

 

Works Cited

1)      The Oceans role in Global Change: The Process of Major Research Programs,  1994,  by The National Research Council Oceans Studies Board

2)      http://www.newsdata.com/enernet/fishletter

3)      http://www.newsdata.com/enernet/fishletter

4)      http://www.users.zetnet.co.uk/richd/sintro.html

5)      http://www.users.zetnet.co.uk/richd/sintro.html

6)      http://www.state.ak.us/local/akpages/FISH.GAME

7)      http://netpets.org/fish/fishnews/salmfarm.html

8)      http://netpets.org/fish/fishnews/salmfarm.html

9)      http://www.newsdata.com/enernet/fishletter

10)  The Oceans role in Global Change: The Process of Major Research Programs,  1994,  by The National Research Council Oceans Studies Board

Interviews: Kenny Neilson, fisherman in San Clemente CA

        Bill Foster, Sport Fishery Rep.  Northern Panel Pacific Salmon Treaty