School of Engineering -
Stanford University
ENGR 297B - Ethics of
Development in a Global Environment
“European Union Enlargement
-
A step to democracy and
financial prosperity”
by Maria
Nikolitsa
Winter
2003
Table of
Contents:
1. Introduction: European
History and Enlargement
2. Candidate
Countries
2.1 The pre-accession
Instruments
2.1.1 The Phare
program
2.1.2 Instrument for Structural
Policies for Pre-accession (ISPA)
2.1.3 Special Program for
Agriculture and Rural Development
2.2 Economic and Political
Analysis of the candidate countries
2.2.1 Czech Republic and
Slovakia
2.2.2 Poland
2.2.3 Hungary
2.2.4 Slovenia
2.2.5 Estonia
2.2.6 Lithuania
2.2.7 Latvia
2.2.8 Bulgaria
2.2.9 Romania
2.2.10 Malta
2.2.11 Cyprus
2.2.12 Turkey
3. Impact - Benefits of
enlargement
4. Conclusion
5. References
1.
Introduction: European
History and Enlargement
The European Union (EU) has
a tradition of successful enlargements. Initially, in 1957, the European Economic Community (EEC)
comprised six countries - Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg and
Netherlands. Subsequently, four enlargements took place - Denmark, Ireland,
United Kingdom (1973), Greece (1974), Portugal and Spain (1986), Austria,
Finland, Sweden (1995). The enlargement that EU faces today is a challenge as
far as the increase in area (by 34%), the increase in population (by 105
million), the cultural and historical diversity are concerned. The current enlargement is a historic
task as for the first time in European history, the continent can be integrated
in a peaceful way. The task of integration of the new thirteen countries is not
easy as they have different financial, political and social backgrounds and in
many cases the gap between the member states of the EU and the candidate ones
seems to be huge. The ultimate goal of the EU is the convergence of the
different economies and the compliance of the candidate countries’ structures
with the sociopolitical acquis of the
EU. For that reason, EU has established a number of programs providing
assistance to the candidate countries in order to join the EU. These programs
and, each country’s status and the impact of the enlargement are presented
analytically in the next sections.
2. Candidate
Countries
During the period 2000-2006,
three instruments - the Phare program, ISPA and SAPARD will provide financial
assistance to the countries of Central and Eastern Europe, which are Bulgaria,
the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania,
Slovakia and Slovenia. The financial aid provided to Malta and Cyprus will be
discussed separately as the economical and political status of these countries
does not need the same aid for reformation as the previous mentioned countries.
Greater changes need to be made to the economy, the public administration and
the political system of Central-Eastern countries due to the fact that a
communist model had been adopted until 90’s. Furthermore, the poor financial
conditions in Romania and Bulgaria delay the start of negotiations for these two
countries up to 2007, so that they have adequate time to reform their economic
system. As for Turkey, the provided financial assistance is presented separately
as the negotiations for its membership in the EU are at a stationary point as
the political situation acts negatively in the process of Turkish candidacy. The
overall pre-accession assistance for all candidate countries is three billions
euros annually during the period 2000-2006, half of which is allocated to Phare.
For 2001, the precise appropriations were 540 millions for SAPARD, 1,080
millions for ISPA and 1,620 for Phare.
2.1 The pre-accession
Instruments
The EU membership of each
candidate country depends on the fulfillment of Copenhagen Criteria, which
define that each country must:
§
be a stable democracy,
respecting human rights, the rule of law, and the protection of minorities
§
have a functioning market
economy
§
adopt the common rules,
standards and policies that make up the body of EU law
Analysis of each program of
financial aid to the candidate countries for EU membership are presented
below:
2.1.1 The Phare
program
The goal of Phare program is
to provide assistance to the candidate countries of central Europe in their
preparations for joining the European Union and it focuses on institution
building and acquis-related
investment. Each one is analyzed separately below:
- The institution building,
which accounts for 30% of the budget, is the process for providing help to
candidate countries to develop structures, strategies, human resources and
management skills. By that way, they will have the opportunity to strengthen
their economic, social, regulatory and administrative capacity. Particular
emphasis is given on the support for public administration. The majority of the
central-eastern countries have
very-well educated human resources which has a lack of knowledge of the
western function of the public administration system. This is due to the
centralized character the public administration used to have in communistic
regimes. This is why the introduction of the “twinning” instrument is essential.
This innovative tool makes available the vast body of Member State’s expertise
to the candidate countries, through the long-term secondment of civil servants
and launch of expert missions, in order to support them in their efforts to
reform public administration.
- The acquis-related investment, which
accounts for 70% of the budget, has two major categories of activities. One of
them is the co-financing of the countries’ regulatory framework in order to
strengthen the necessary infrastructure for compliance with the acquis. Therefore, investment in all the
equipment essential to operation of the internal market, such as investments in
food safety structure, security of frontiers, testing equipment and laboratories
for the consumer protection are supported by this program. The second category
involves investments in economic and social cohesion, through measures similar
to the ones supported in Member States, in order to promote the functioning of
the market economy and the capacity to cope with competitive pressure and market
forces within the EU.
One of the major objectives
of the EU Commission is to assist the candidate countries in taking on full
responsibility and liability for the management of all Community aid. An
Extended Decentralized Implementation System is currently prepared in order to
help the countries to prepare for a smooth transition from pre-accession
assistance to Structural Funds.
2.1.2 Instrument for
Structural Policies for Pre-accession (ISPA)
For the 2000-2006 period,
the ISPA program provides financial aid for investments in the sectors of
transportation and environment to candidate countries in order to comply with
the European legislation as soon as possible. The foreseen budget for that
period is 7 billions EUR. ISPA aims at providing good connections between the
European Union and the candidate countries and links from these to the
Trans-European Transport Networks. As for the sector of transport, ISPA provides
funding for the development of railways, roads, waterways/ports and airports,
with a greater emphasis on rail network. EU has foreseen the necessity of a good
transportation network, with many alternative routes as the trade is expected to
increase dramatically the next years and the existing road network of Europe,
which is mostly used for traffic of goods will be inadequate as it will be able
to serve only 50% of the traffic of goods. In the field of the environment,
funding is provided for solutions to drinking water, treatment of wastewater,
solid-waste management and air pollution issues. Funding is also provided for
preparatory studies and technical assistance for project
management.
2.1.3 Special Program for
Agriculture and Rural Development (SAPARD)
SAPARD aims at supporting
the efforts of the candidate countries to participate in the Common Agricultural
Policy (CAP), by providing solutions to specific problems in agriculture and
rural development. SAPARD funds investments in processing and marketing of
agricultural and fishery products, in agricultural holdings, in the rural
infrastructure and the diversification of economic activities, providing for
multiple activities and alternative income. Furthermore, it supports the
improvement of quality control and standards of food products, maintenance of
the countryside, farm activities, conservation of rural heritage, land
improvement, vocational training and forestry.
2.2 Economic and Political
Analysis of the candidate countries
In the next sub-sections,
the economy and the political status of each candidate country are presented in
detail. Furthermore, the goals to be achieved in order to have each country
entered into the EU are analyzed. Moreover, the feelings of public opinion of
each country’s people are presented.
2.2.1 Czech Republic and
Slovakia
Until 1938, Czechoslovakia
was one of the ten most developed industrial states worldwide and it was a
democratic state. After the end of World War II, a Soviet-style Communist regime
was introduced to Czechoslovakia and for forty years it ruled assisted by
oppressive institutions every aspect of socio-political life. After 1948, the
Communist Party was the only actual political entity. Although few other parties
were allowed to exist, their role was to promote the image of Czechoslovakia to
be a democratic state. The fall of the Communist regime took place in 1989. In
1992, Czechoslovakia separated in Czech Republic and Slovakia, which are both
candidate countries for EU membership.
In general, the public
opinion supports the accession to the EU (more than 50% of the population). The
referendum, which will be realized on the 15th of June 2003 and will
be the first one in the country’s history, will have to prove this trend,
otherwise no vote can be help for the next two years. On the other hand, one of
the main concerns of the Czech is the limitation of farming subsidies to the
future member countries. In order to meet the criteria for joining the EU, Czech
Republic should protect its Roma minority from acts of violation and make
efforts to eliminate the crime rate and shady networks of corruption. For 2002,
the financial aid from the three instruments of EU (Phare, ISPA, SAPARD) was 104
MEUR, 70 MEUR and 171 MEUR respectively. The EU supports the country financially
in order to evolve to a democratic state by adopting all the necessary
principles and to a market economy. Recently, through ISPA funding, EU supports
the improvement of the sewerage system in Brno and, through Phare funding, the
establishment of an Energy Regulatory Office.
As for Slovakia, the country
receives financial support through Phare in order to change citizens perception
who consider corruption and bribery as legitimate behavior in public
administration. In addition to that, funding through ISPA (47.7 MEUR) will be
evenly distributed between transport infrastructure (upgrading ZSR railway
commercial lines, modernization of road network) and environment (waste water
treatment plants, waste management). The Slovak SAPARD plan will receive 18.7
MEUR from EU for rural development. A national referendum will take place on the
16th of May, 2003. The Slovaks
support by 58% the EU membership according to opinion polls.
2.2.2
Poland
Poland used to be on of the
most powerful and richest states of the European continent during the
16th century. In 1791, the Commonwealth of Poland - Lithuania
ratified a constitution - the first written constitution of Europe. Afterwards,
Poland was partitioned by its neighboring countries - Prussia, Russia and
Austria - for 123 years. Poland became independent in 1918 for only twenty years
as the communism spread in the country. In 1989, the first elections took place
after the fall of the communist regime. Currently, Poland is a democratic
country, with a new constitution passed in 1991. Poland has to deal with a great
number of issues in order to complete all the requirements for EU membership. As
for the agricultural sector, it contributes for 5% of the national GDP, while
the 60% of the country’s land is used for agriculture and the 40% of the
population is employed in this sector of economy. These figures show that the
productivity should be reinforced with technological solutions, agricultural
training and upgrading of the infrastructure. A fear of the Polish is the loss
of their national identity by becoming a member of the EU. This is impossible as
no country in the EU ever lost its particular character, as all of them have
traditions and cultures with strong background. Moreover, the EU respects the
cultural diversity of its member states and has as an ultimate goal the economic
and social cohesion. Poland exhibits a unique feature regarding role of the
Catholicism in guiding the public opinion of the country about the EU
membership. Pope John Paul II promoted the EU membership of Poland in front of
2.5 million people in Krakow. On the other hand, Father Rytzyk, who is the
League of Polish Families right-wing party, strongly opposes to EU candidacy.
Poland has to face efficiently the corruption and the weak administration in
order to become a member of the EU. A referendum, in a national basis, will be
realized on the 8th of June, 2003 to reveal the public opinion
regarding this important issue.
2.2.3
Hungary
Hungary is a candidate
country with 10.2 million people. Its economy suffered a great (20%) currency
appreciation against Euro lasting eighteen months. Nowadays, the inflation rate
has declined to 5.3%. The sector of construction keeps growing, while the
export-oriented manufacturing and the tourism have weaknesses. The capital
movement has been liberalized and the unemployment is one of the lowest in
candidate countries (5.9%), involving mostly the low-skill segments of the labor
force. Nowadays, the FDI has quadrupled since 1989. The main trade partner of
Hungary is EU ( exports to EU account for 75% of the total exports of Hungary
and imports form EU account for 58% of the total imports in the country).
Hungary is required to deal with the issues of the discrimination against Roma
minority and the great poverty in order to join the EU (1/3 of the population
lives below the poverty line). The EU will give 120.7 MEUR through Phare, 92.4
MEUR through ISPA and 38.7 MEUR through SAPARD annually until 2006 to assist
Hungary in its efforts to comply with the EU policy and standards. A project of
great significance funded with 10 MEUR by the EU is the reconstruction of the
Danube bridge, which was destroyed during the World War II. A referendum about
the EU membership of Hungary at a national level is arranged for the
12th of April, 2003. According to exit polls, the 67% of the total
population is in favor of the EU membership.
2.2.4
Slovenia
Slovenia is a Parliamentary
democracy with two million inhabitants. Slovenia is one of the most prosperous
candidate countries for EU membership and its GDP is higher than the one of all
the other countries of Central Europe. In order to fulfill all the requirements
for becoming a EU member state in 2004, the privatization has to accelerate as
the 45% of the economy is still state-owned in order to attract foreign
investment. Furthermore, the high inflation rate (8.4%) is a matter of concern.
In general terms, its economy is comparable to the one of Portugal, which is a
EU member. A national referendum for identification of the public opinion
regarding EU candidacy and potential membership is scheduled for the
23rd of March, 2003.
2.2.5
Estonia
The republic of Estonia
first appeared in 1918. Subsequently, it was occupied by Nazi Germany (1941-44)
and the Soviet Union (1940-41, 1944-91). In 1980s, the Estonians started to seek
for independence. In 1988, peaceful protests occurred when a large number of
Estonians gathered in order to sing national songs in a the so-called “singing”
revolution. Since 1991, Estonia is an independent country, with a population of
1.4 million people. The reforms of the economic system in order to achieve a
successful transition from a planned economy to a market one were thorough. The
privatization process and the liberalization of prices were launched in order to
attract foreign investment in the business sector and fulfilled the ultimate
goal. The growth rate of the economy is 6%, driven by economic integration with
EU member states and it puts it ahead of most of the applicant countries.
Machinery and electrical equipment exports, tourism and transit trade affect
positively the growth of the economy. One of the main trade partners of Estonia
is Finland, an EU member. Estonia is required to integrate the Russian community
in its territory, which accounts for 50% of the total population in order to
join the EU. The benefits form the membership in the EU is the national
security, amelioration of relations with Russia, improvement of living
standards, better social status. The increase in prices is expected to be
overcome by the quality of life. A recent Estonian development is information
technology and Estonia is the leading country for internet connections among the
candidate EU countries and some EU member states, such as France or Belgium. The
fear of competition affecting negatively the manufacturing enterprises is
widespread. The EU supports the candidacy of Estonia by providing 36 MEUR per
year through ISPA and 13.1 MEUR per year through SAPARD. Form 1992 -2001,
Estonia received 245 MEUR totally. A challenging project is the use of coal
instead of fuel in power stations which is three times more efficient and less
pollutant. A referendum for accession in EU will take place on the
14th of September, 2003. The public opinion (57% ) supports the EU
membership according to a survey carried out by the Estonian polling
organization Emor.
2.2.6
Lithuania
Lithuania appears in written
historical documents in 1009 AD. The modern Lithuania was established in1918 and
became independent in 1990, after 50 years of foreign rule from ex-USSR.
Lithuania has a modern highway system, several international airports and one
port in use, as the seawater there is not frozen. However, it is poor in natural
resources. The main trade partner of Lithuania is the EU. The main issues to be
solved in order to join the EU is the corruption in the public administration
and the weakness in rural infrastructure, regarding poor condition of farm
access roads, electricity supply system, water supply network and
telecommunications. For dealing with the agricultural issues effectively,
Lithuania will receive 39.9 MEUR annually until 2006 through SAPARD funding. A
referendum regarding accession from the EU is scheduled for 10th of
May, 2003.
2.2.7
Latvia
Latvia is situated in the
intersection of the trade routes between Western Europe and Russia. Latvia has
three major ports - one of them, Ventspils, is the largest one in Baltic Sea and
has a great cargo turnover, which ranks it among the fifteen leading European
ports. Latvia gets involved in electronics, mechanical engineering technology,
chemical and pharmaceutical production, wood processing and food production.
Currently, the type of government is democratic, parliamentary republic. The
issues that Latvia has to deal with in order to succeed in entering into the EU
is the integration of the Russian Community into society and significant
progress in legality and efficiency in the utilization of public funds. A
referendum is arranged for the 29th of September 2003 in order to
have the public opinion revealed regarding the EU membership of their
country.
2.2.8
Bulgaria
Bulgaria is a former
communist country striving to enter the European Union. Since 1991, Bulgaria is
a parliamentary republic as that year the latest Constitution of Bulgaria, which
is characterized by principles of modern constitutionalism - multi-party
parliamentary system, free elections on the basis of universal suffrage, was
adopted. Bulgaria used to experience macroeconomic stability until 1996, when a
major economic downturn led to the fall of the socialist government. The current
government tries to achieve economic stability with a stable currency board, low
interest rate and substantial foreign-exchange reserves by practicing stable
financial policies, accelerating privatization, and pursuing structural reforms.
Actually, the economic growth has accelerated to 4.5% (2001). On the other hand,
the eight million citizens of Bulgaria suffer from unemployment (17.5% in 2001)
and poverty (35% of the population below poverty line). For example, many
employees work twelve hours a day and their monthly salary is 110 leva (50
euros), while the price of goods are close to the ones of the EU. The category
of Bulgarians who suffer the most are the Roma - or Gipsy - as whole sectors of
economy do not employ them. Therefore, Bulgaria has a lot of economic and social
problems to solve before it can join the EU. Furthermore, there is a high crime
rate and the judicial system needs to be reformed. For instance, amendments to
the Constitution regarding the immunity of the magistrates should be made. In
addition to that, Bulgaria also needs to drop the constitutional ban on
foreigners buying land in its territory. Even though, foreigners can acquire
ownership of buildings and lease land, they cannot own land and they have to
obtain license in order to engage in certain activities such as ammunition,
banking, insurance and exploitation of natural resources. This prohibition will
continue to be active until the development of a real market, otherwise the land
will be bought very cheaply. This fear involving the fertile agricultural land
is widespread in Bulgaria. Another issue, which has to be solved before having
Bulgaria join the EU is the demand of the closure of the oldest reactors of the
Kozloduy nuclear power station. Thus, the European Council offers 212.5 million
euros loan for the modernization and upgrading of the nuclear plants. At the
moment the EU has not demonstrated any legislative initiative regarding nuclear
policy but, there is a great concern regarding this issue and the nuclear policy
definition is one of the EU future priorities As for agriculture, the variety of produced goods has
minimized. As a result, Bulgaria needs the financial assistance of EU. It will
receive an additional 20% in 2004, 30% in 2005 and 40% in 2006 compared to the
average assistance received in the period 2001-2003 in order to achieve the
objective of membership in 2007. Bulgaria is one of the most enthusiastic
candidate countries about EU membership (75% of the population supports the
accession).
2.2.9
Romania
On 22 June 1995, the
Romanian Government submitted her application for membership to the European
Union. Currently, Romania is one of the poorest countries of Central and Eastern
Europe - 44.5% of its population is below poverty line. This is the main reason for which
Romania was excluded from the first round of EU enlargement talks and its new
goal is to achieve the membership of 2007. In 1989, the transition form
communism began. The economy of the country was characterized by an obsolete
industrial base and an output pattern unsuited to the needs of the country. In
1991, a new Constitution was adopted, demonstrating a democratic approach to the
development, giving rise to free elections and protecting minority groups.
Despite the notable Romanian efforts to achieve EU membership, a great number of
problems remain unsolved. First of all, the corruption of the business world is
widespread and it will not be eliminated as long as the legal and the judiciary
system remain ineffective. Therefore, the judiciary system needs to be reformed.
Due to the corruption, the country seems to be unattractive to foreign investors
as the there is a high venture risk. Furthermore, even though the 40% of the
population gets involved in agriculture the productivity is so low that it
accounts for the 5% of the national GDP. This fact is due to the poor quality
equipment and the ineffective communication systems. Furthermore, the Roma
minority is still persecuted and the situation of children in institutional care
needs to be improved. These problems require solutions, so that Romania fulfills
the Copenhagen Criteria for accession to the EU. EU Council is aware of the
problems that Romania encounters and tries to facilitate its accession through
the three instruments (Phare, ISPA, SAPARD) by providing 630 million euros
annually until 2006.
2.2.10
Malta
Malta applied for EU
membership in 1990 but, its application was frozen in 1996, due to a change of
the government and it was re-activated in 1998. Despite the lack of natural
resources, Malta produces a wide variety of products in its limited land and
exports part of its crop. The beekeeping industry is famous since ancient times.
Currently, Malta has a well developed economy based on tourism, manufacturing
industry and services. Malta also aims to become a hub for communications in the
Mediterranean Sea. Its easily adaptable and multi-lingual labor force can lead
Malta to this direction. Malta receives funding from the same programs as
Cyprus, which are different from the ones providing assistance to the Central
and Eastern European countries as their economies are in a good condition and
they are the only countries with no communist background. Therefore, the
financial aid, consisting of special loans, risk capital funds and grants for
technological development, aims at increasing its competitiveness. The
referendum, which took place in Malta on the 8th of March, 2003
proved that the citizens of Malta approve of the candidacy for the EU
membership.
2.2.11
Cyprus
Cyprus consists of two
communities, the Greek Cypriots and the Turkish Cypriots. The island of Cyprus
where mostly Greeks used to live, had a multi-ethnic culture as it actually
belonged to whichever empire was in power in the Mediterranean - Phoenicians,
Assyrians, Egyptians, Persians. Under the Lusignan dynasty, which lasted for
three centuries and ended in 1373 by the Genoese invasion in the island, Cyprus
was one of the richest countries in the world. In 1570, the island was conquered
by Ottomans, Sultan Selim II, who brought 20,000 Ottomans colonists in the
island, the ancestors of the current Turkish Cypriots. In 1878, with the decline
of the Ottoman Empire, Britain signed a military treaty with Turkey, in order to
occupy and administer Cyprus as an effort to stop Russian expansion to the area,
which could threaten its trade routes with India. In 1960, Cyprus became an
independent country, with power division along communal lines. The outcome was a
political crisis and the UN sent forces to the island. In 1974, the military
junta in Greece discussed with Turkey to get rid of president Makarios who
relied in the leftist party, Akel, but, they did not conclude in a common
agreement. The Greek dictators started a coup in Cyprus but Makarios escaped.
The military regime in Greece collapsed, while, at the same time, Turkish troops
landed in Cyprus and seized 1/3 of the island and left 200,000 refugees unable
to return to their homes. The country divided into two parts. The capital of
Cyprus, Nicosia, has a wall like the one Berlin used to have.
At the moment, the Republic
of Cyprus, which consists of the Greek Cypriot area is officially recognized.
The northern part of the island (Turkish Cypriot area) is recognized only by
Turkey. As a result, foreign firms have hesitated to invest there and its
economy depends totally on agriculture and government service, which both of
them employ the 50% of the work force. Turkey provides financial aid to the
Turkish Cypriot economy as grants for tourism, education and industrial
development. The last ten years, the financial assistance was $600
millions.
From 1978 - 1999, the EU had
made available to Cyprus 210 MEUR as loans (152M), grants (51M) and risk capital
(7M), in order support small and medium enterprises, environment, energy and
transport sectors. From 2000-2004, the total pre-accession aid will be 57M for
investment, institution-building, economic and social cohesion and
reconciliation of the two Cypriot communities. Additional financial aid is
provided for harmonization, bi-communal and decentralization projects.
The Greek Cypriot side is
really enthusiastic about EU membership as the application of Cyprus to join
Union will contribute positively to the re-unification of the island. The
Turkish Cypriots are also eager to join the EU as they are tired of the economic
hardship (the GDP in the south is seven times higher than in the north side) and
the international isolation. Furthermore, this could be a solution to deter
Turkish Cypriots from leaving the island in great numbers. On the other hand,
some Turkish Cypriots are skeptical that the gap between the two communities
might increase. The president of self-declared Turkish Republic of Northern
Cyprus, R. Denktas, refused to negotiate on a modified UN proposal for the
unification of the island. The Turkish Cypriot side supports the creation of two
federations in the island, while the EU has proposed the establishment of one
federation with the participation of both communities. As Cyprus has to sign on
the 16th of April for its accession from the EU, if there is no
change in the Turkish Cypriots position, Brussels will accept the candidacy of
the Republic of Cyprus (Greet Cypriots side) and the opportunity for the
re-unification of the island after so many years will be lost probably
forever.
2.2.12
Turkey
According to the Copenhagen
Summit, Turkey will restart the negotiations with the EU in 2004 as it does not
fulfill the Copenhagen Criteria.
As far as the economy is concerned, it suffers from a high inflation rate
(69%) and an unemployment rate of 11.1%, which increases even more if the
under-employment rate of 6.1% is taken into account. In a political level, it is
regarded that Turkey is substantially governed by the military people, despite
the fact that the political system is parliamentary. In 1960, Turkey had a
military regime, which resigned its authority after three years, when it
considered that they had achieved political and economic stability. This
dictatorship is unique as it is the only military regime which was not forced to
resign. On the other hand, in all other cases, the countries obtained democratic
institutions, while Turkey still has the influence of the military council in
the governing of the country. The
following cases reveal the reasons for which the candidacy of Turkey to become a
member of The European Union has frozen, as they can be considered violations of
Copenhagen criteria regarding human right section:
Akin Birdal is the former President of
the Human Rights Association (IHD) of Turkey and deputy president of the
European Human Rights Federation. While he was still Chairman of the IHD, he was
gunned with six bullets in his office (May 1998). The assassins abandoned him to
bleed to death, but he managed to survive. The assassination order, according to
the No 1 State Security Court (DGM) in Ankara, came from the Turkish Revenge
Brigade (TIT). According to political analysts, the Turkish media, are also to
blame for this assault, as they turn intellectuals, authors, and politicians
into public targets. The significant work of Mr. Birdal in the field of human
rights of minorities in Turkey annoyed the Turkish Government and Army.
Therefore, in October of 1998, the Appeal Court confirmed a sentence of one
year’s imprisonment for “inciting people to hatred and enmity on the basis of
class, race or regional differences” under Article 312/2 of the Turkish Penal
Code. His “offence” had been to call for a peaceful approach to the issue of
Turkish’s Kurdish minority and to use the phrase “the Kurdish” people in a
speech made at public in 1996. Another sentence of one year’s imprisonment in
April 1999 under Article 312 was confirmed for a speech he made in 1995 at a
peace festival panel. Akin Birdal
was imprisoned in June 1999 and was released from prison on health grounds in
September 1999, so that Turkey would avoid embarrassment during the Istanbul
OSCE Conference and the EU Helsinki Summit. This is why he was sent to prison
immediately after the end of these meetings, despite his critical health
condition, to complete the rest six months of his sentence. At the moment, the
period of his imprisonment is over, but he considers that “his freedom is only
physical, as a free person has no limitations, no prohibitions to speak, to
write, to express his thoughts”. Amnesty International’s German Section awarded
Mr. Birdal a special human rights prize in recognition of his efforts as a human
rights defender.
Article 312 is the most commonly used
article of the Turkish Penal Code to inhibit debate. Any conviction under this
article leads to bans to participation in politics or civil society. As a
result, Akin Birdal was forced to resign not only from the leadership of the
Turkish Human Rights Association but also from the membership. Furthermore, he
is not allowed to stand for any political office nor join any political party
during his lifetime. Thus, Article 312 is the end of the political career and
public life of politicians who have ideas which are not welcome to the state,
regarding issues of politics, religion, military or ethnicity. For example,
Tayyip Erdogan was deprived from his status as mayor of Istanbul for reading an
inoffensive poem and Celal Guzel, former education minister and leader of the
Rebirth party was imprisoned five days after EU summit under article 312. Even
though a great number of convictions under article 312 contravene Article 10 of
the European Convention in judgments against Turkey, both members of the
judiciary and politicians oppose to the reformation of the penal code. In
advance of the Helsinki Summit, the Turkish government gave assurances that the
Turkish Penal Code was on the road to reform. After Turkey’s EU candidacy was
approved, the State Minister of Human Rights Mehmet Ali Irtemcelik announced a
series of measures fro free expression. However, nothing has been done since
then. It seems that the main obstacle the reformation of Article 312 is the
army. Actually, in 1999, the chief of general staff warned that the Article 312
should not be amended.
Another human rights
violation in Turkey committed under the Article 312 is the imprisonment of the Italian citizen and journalist Dino Frisullo for participating in
celebrations to mark the Kurdish New Year and for demonstrating support to the
fundamental rights of Kurdish people. He received a one-year prison sentence and
a 6,100,000,000 TL fine. While he was in jail, the decision was overturned by
the Supreme Court, and it was sent to the Diyarbakir DGM for retrial. Mr.
Frisullo was released, under the pressure of his country and the EU, but he did
not manage to appear at his hearing as he was deported when he arrived in
Istanbul on the grounds that there was a ban against him to enter the country.
This event acts as an obstacle for Italy, in particular and the EU to accept
Turkey as a potential member of the EU as long as the indisputable right of
thought expression and speech freedom is not respected. This is the fundamental
principle of democracy and journalism.
Another case, proving the
lack of democracy is Turkey and being an obstacle to the negotiations between EU
and Turkey, is the imprisonment of Leyla
Zana ten years ago. Leyla Zana was the first Kurd woman to be elected to the
Turkish Parliament. After her election, she wanted to give oath to her mother
language, as a symbolic gesture to assert the identity of people that she
represented. For this initiative, she was arrested and condemned to confinement
for fifteen years. (Turkish State does not recognize to the Kurdish people
living in the Turkish territory the rights of self-determination, linguistic and
cultural identity). Now, she is held in total isolation to the jails of maximum
emergency in Ankara. Despite her critical health condition and an immense
international mobilization for her release, Ms. Zana will accept to be free as
long as a general amnesty is provided to all political prisoners in Turkey. She
has been awarded with prize “Sacharov” from the European Parliament, previously
attributed to Nelson Mandela, “The Roses” in Denmark, “Oscar Romero for dignity”
in Italy and she has been candidate for the prize Nobel for the peace in
1999.
Another case showing the
lack of democracy in Turkey was the one of Abdullah Ocalan. Abdullah Ocalan was the
head of Kurdistan Workers Party (PKK), which had waged a bloody battle for
Kurdish independence. The Kurds are a non-Arab, Muslim people, having their own
cultural and linguistic identity. They number 20 to 25 million. They are
concentrated in southeastern Turkey, northern Iraq, Iran and parts of Syria. By
the end of the Ottoman Empire after the World War I, the Kurds were promised
their own state according to the Treaty of Sevres in 1920. But, Turkey
renegotiated the terms of the treaty and Kurds were left as a nation without a
state. According to the European Court, both PKK and Turkey commited inexcusable
massacres. A. Ocalan was arrested in Kenya on charges of treason and terrorism,
after failing to find asylum in Europe. Up to nowadays, the Kurdish people are
not recognized as a minority in Turkey, and they do not enjoy any language
rights. It remains illegal to use the Kurdish language in school, broadcasts and
politics. After his arrest, Ocalan was sentenced guilty to death by three
Turkish judges. The EU called for an appeal for his life. According to the EU
policy, death penalty in Turkey should be abolished as it violates the
fundamental human right for life. Nowadays, Ocalan is imprisoned in Turkey. The
European Court decided on the12th of March, 2003 that Ocalan did not
have a fair trial.
Another issue, acting as a
hurdle to admit Turkey to the EU is the lack of respect of religious freedom.
For example, the orthodox theological school of Chalki, situated in the island
of Heybelyada, near Istanbul, was once the spawning ground for the hierarchy of
the Ecumenical Patriarchate, the Orthodoxy’s mother church, until it was shut
down by the Turkish Government in 1971, even though this decision of the Turkish
State violated the treaty of Lozanne. In 1998, Ankara dissolved the board of
trustees, which was taking care of valuable ecclesiastical and community
properties of a once-flourishing community. This Turkish decision preceded by
one month the anticipated US congressional legislation calling on Turkey to
recognize the Ecumenical Patriarchate, ensure the institution’s physical needs
and reopen the Chalki Patriarchal School of Theology. The bill, which was
approved by both the US Representatives and Senate, was signed by President Bill
Clinton (October 1998). The Turkish Government demanded that only new candidates
for board members should stand for election. But, the remaining Greek community
- only 2,000 people, with a high proportion of elderly ones - faced for years
the problem of finding candidates to stand for elections. Consequently, the
serving members were re-elected over and over. As a result, the firing of the
board can be viewed as a message that if the school reopens, the Turkish
government will remain firmly in control. Nowadays, the School of Chalki still
remains shut down.
The repression in Turkey’s
jails pointed out by the cries of agony of human right activists, who are
inundated with complaints of torture and abuse from lawyers, doctors and
prisoners’ relatives, is one of the main issues that is in the agenda as to be
solved in order to have Turkey allowed to join the EU. Despite Turkey’s
parliamentary tradition dating back to 1870, democratic rights have been
systematically denied to the people, as the Turkish ruling class keeps its
privileges using brute force, ruling the country through a military dictatorship
at times or behind a thin parliamentary façade. A right-wing military coup in
1980 marked a period of intensified repression, as all strikes and mass actions
were banned, trade unions were shut down and more than 650,000 people were
imprisoned. The captives in Turkey are political prisoners and prisoners of war,
both Turkish and Kurdish. They are subjected to beatings, torture, solitary
confinement, denial of medical care and various physical attacks in an effort to
turn them into submissive objects. The prisoners take up many forms of
resistance to the repression. One of them is hunger strike, as an ultimate means
to let the world know the horrors of life in Turkey’s prisons. The next figures
indicate the scale of the hunger-strike movements in
Turkey:
§
In June-July 1983 a hunger
strike at Istanbul prisons involved around 2,500 political captives.
§
October-November 1988 more
than 2000 captives took part in hunger strike protests in around 20 prisons
throughout Turkey.
§
July-August 1995 nearly
10,000 prisoners of war from the Kurdish Workers Party (the PKK) carried out a
hunger strike.
§
May-August 1996 in 33
prisons some 1,500 prisoners took part in an indefinite hunger strike and death
fast.
§
On 24 September 1996 a mass
hunger strike protest against a prison massacre was carried out by 11,500
political captives.
The relatives of the
political captives are subject to similar treatment by the authorities, such as
bans on visits and correspondence lasting form months to years, humiliating
searches and sexual harassment. Many of them participate in several forms of
struggle, including hunger strike.
As for the EU, it is
critical that Turkey becomes a member of the EU as this would show that a modern
Muslim country can be integrated with the West. But, for some EU members, the
priority is the respect of human rights. As for the United States, the issue is
strategic as they need Turkey for their ally in a possible war against Iraq. The
Europeans resent the heavy pressure that President Bush bears on them and they
believe that Turkey should take advantage of the freezing of its candidacy to
complete its transition to democracy and modernity.
Turkey, as it is deeply
concerned about achieving the EU membership, has made a series of good steps.
Firstly, it lifted the opposition to a long-delayed for two years arrangement of
NATO to assist EU’s embryonic rapid reaction force. Therefore, EU can draw
assets from NATO to establish a 60,000 strong force. As for Iraq crisis, the
Turkish Parliament did not approve of assisting the US force to attack against
Iraq, despite the initial approval of the Turkish President and it rejected the $ 6 billions
financial aid of the US. The voting of the Turkish Parliament will be repeated this week and the
result is of great interest and historic significance for the entire
humanity.
Finally, it is essential to
increase the security of its borders and modernize its judiciary system in order
to eliminate the heroine traffic and the production of opium.
3. Impact - Benefits of
enlargement
If the enlargement process
proves to be successful, the existing members of the EU and the new ones will
have benefits. First of all, peace, stability and prosperity will dominate in
the European continent. As the number of the total population of the EU
increases by adding the 100 million people of the candidate countries and their
growing economies, the European economy will reinforce its growth and
subsequently, more jobs will be created in both the new and old member states.
The quality of life of European citizens will improve throughout Europe as the
crime rate, drugs traffic, illegal immigration and pollution will be eliminated.
Moreover, the cultural diversity of all these different countries with unique
civilizations will facilitate the interchange of ideas and promote the better
understanding of people. Furthermore, the enlargement of EU will strengthen its
role in world issues, such as foreign policy and trade of goods. The above
mentioned benefits have started to become real. The democratization of many of
candidate countries has realized. In addition to that, the economic reforms have
led to economic growth (higher rates in several cases than the one of the EU)
and better employment perspectives. Last but mot least, the increasing trade
with the candidate countries (17 MEUR trade surplus in 2000) have generated new
employment opportunities and growth in the member states of the EU.
Despite these positive
results in the economic and political life of Europeans, a lot of skepticism is
expressed regarding how possible immigration, trade and capital movement will
affect the wages and the unemployment rates in existing and candidate states of
the EU. Studies have shown that the immigration will decrease with years as it
happened in the past (in 1990 370,000 immigrants came to the EU, while in 1997
only 14,000 from the candidate countries). In addition to that the wages will
not decrease - the only people who have a greater possibility of lower wages or
unemployment - is the unskilled labor force in host countries. Even the
countries which will receive the greatest percentage of immigrants, Germany and
Austria (80%), will have moderate impact on employment as the individual risk of
dismissal increases by 0.8% points in the Austria and 0.2% points in
Germany. In addition to that, the
regions/countries with higher immigration problems will be the neighboring ones
in the candidate countries. The impact will not be necessarily negative on
balance but the adjustment pressure will be high. Special allocation of EU funds
will be given to these regions in order to increase the competitiveness of small
and medium businesses situated there. In the long run, these influences will be
negligible. Actually, as the candidate countries face similar demographic
challenges as current EU member countries with an ageing population and a
decreasing working age population, the flows of immigrants might reduce, while
the migration needs will increase in the existing EU. As for trade, as the EU member and
candidate countries are specialized in different kinds of goods and segments of
market, all production factors will benefit from increased trade and relative
wages will remain unaffected. Another challenge is the convergence of the GDP
per capita between the member and
the candidate countries of the EU as now the GDP per capita of the latter ones
is 1/10 of the average GDP per capita of the first ones and the purchase power
parities of the candidate ones is the 1/3 of the purchase power parities of the
member ones. A plausible rate of convergence of the national GDP per capita can
be derived from the experience of post-war development in European market
economies. A convergence rate of 2% will reduce the income gap in 35 years and
the applicant countries will achieve a per capita GDP of 70% of the EU average
in 2035.
4.
Conclusion
It is really crucial that
the enlargement is realized as it will be beneficiary for both the existing
member states and the potential
members of the European Union. It seems that despite the difficulties in each
candidate country, the EU has identified the problems that require immediate
solutions and provides assistance in the process of democratization and economic
development through programs and consultancy. A successful enlargement of the EU
will be beneficiary for itself as it will be transformed to a significant
political and economic “power”. This evolution will also benefit the humanity.
The history has shown in the past that the “dipolism” (the existence of two
equivalent “powers” ) reduces the “arrogance of power” that one might
demonstrate in case of “monopolism”.
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